A review of modeling and control during drilling of fiber reinforced plastic composites

Drilling induced damage in polymer–matrix composites (PMCs) is a research area of immense engineering importance. Various approaches have been tried worldwide to minimize drilling induced damage. In this study, a review of automated drilling operation has been done. Various mathematical modeling methods used for dynamic phenomenon of drilling in PMCs and conventional materials have been discussed. Drilling of fiber reinforced plastic composites can be modeled using empirical techniques, neural network/fuzzy-logic and transfer function modeling methods. This paper brings state-of-the-art in the control of drilling process. The drilling of fiber reinforced plastic composites can be controlled using neural network, fuzzy logic, supervisory, PI, PID, pole placement and adaptive controllers. Results indicate that thrust force and torque have not been controlled simultaneously for delamination free drilling in PMCs. Critical thrust force has also not been precisely tracked. There is a need to create a combined mathematical model consisting of thrust force, torque and feed rate coupled with a suitable control law for simultaneous control of thrust force as well as torque for delamination free drilling of composites.     

Drilling in carbon/epoxy composites: Experimental investigations and finite element implementation

Drilling carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRPs) is typically cumbersome due to high structural stiffness of the composite and low thermal conductivity of plastics. Resin-rich areas between neighbouring plies in a laminate are prone to drilling-induced delamination that compromises structural integrity. Appropriate selection of drilling parameters is believed to mitigate damage in CFRPs. In this context, we study the effect of cutting parameters on drilling thrust force and torque during the machining process both experimentally and numerically. A unique three-dimensional (3D) finite element model of drilling in a composite laminate, accounting for complex kinematics at the drill-workpiece interface is developed. Cohesive zone elements are used to simulate interply delamination in a composite. Experimental quantification of drilling-induced damage is performed by means of X-ray micro computed tomography. The developed numerical model is shown to agree reasonably well with the experiments. The model is used to predict optimal drilling parameters in carbon/epoxy composites.     

Delamination in drilling GFR-thermoset composites

Delamination is a major problem associated with drilling fiber-reinforced composite materials that, in addition to reducing the structural integrity of the material, also results in poor assembly tolerance and has the potential for long-term performance deterioration. Delamination-free in drilling different fiber reinforced thermoset composites is the main objective of the present paper. Therefore the influence of drilling and material variables on thrust force, torque and delamination of GFRP composites was investigated experimentally. Drilling variables are cutting speed and feed. Material variable include matrix type, filler and fiber shape. Drilling process was carried out on cross-winding/polyester, continuous-winding with filler/polyester, chopped/polyester, woven/polyester and woven/epoxy composites. A simple inexpensive accurate technique was developed to measure delamination size.

The results show that the presence of sand filler in continuous-winding composites not only raised the values of cutting forces and push-out delamination but also increased their values with increasing cutting speed. In contrast, increasing the cutting speed in drilling cross-winding, woven and chopped composites reduces the push-out delamination as a result of decreasing the thrust force. The thrust forces in drilling continuous-winding composite are more than three orders of magnitude higher than those in the cross-winding composites. Chopped composites have lower push-out delamination than those made from woven fibers. For the same fiber shape, the peel-up and push-out delaminations of woven/epoxy composite are lower than that for woven/polyester composites. Delamination, chipping and spalling damage mechanisms were observed in drilling chopped and continuous-winding composites. In drilling woven composites the delamination was observed at different edge position angles due to the presence of the braids that made by the interlacing of two orthogonal directions of fibers tows (warp and fill). Delamination-free in drilling cross-winding composites was achieved using variable feed technique.     

Numerical prediction of delamination onset in carbon/epoxy composites drilling

Despite the fact that their physical properties make them an attractive family of materials, composites machining can cause several damage modes such as delamination, fibre pull-out, thermal degradation, and others. Minimization of axial thrust force during drilling reduces the probability of delamination onset, as it has been demonstrated by analytical models based on linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM).A finite element model considering solid elements of the ABAQUS^® software library and interface elements including a cohesive damage model was developed in order to simulate thrust forces and delamination onset during drilling. Thrust force results for delamination onset are compared with existing analytical models.     

基于CFRP层合板钻削轴向力时变曲线的钻头几何形状分析

为探索能够实现碳纤维增强复合材料（CFRP）层合板低损制孔的钻头几何形状,采用4种不同几何形状的钻头,对T800级CFRP层合板进行钻孔实验研究,分析了钻头几何形状对钻削轴向力的影响,探讨了钻削轴向力与分层损伤之间的关系。结果表明:轴向力归零速度与出口分层因子有较好的正相关性,可采用钻削轴向力归零速度来表征钻头几何形状对CFRP层合板钻孔的适用性能。同时,实验发现切削区域具有多阶段几何特征的钻头,在钻出工件底部时轴向力是分阶段缓慢归零,出口分层因子较小。      

Trepanning on unidirectional composites: delamination studies

Drilling of fibre reinforced plastics with conventional tools often results in defects like delamination, debonding, fibre pull-out, etc. Thrust is a major factor responsible for delamination and it mainly depends on tool geometry and feed rate. Trepanning tools, which were used in this study, were found to give reduced thrust while making holes on thin laminated composites. In this work the peculiarities of trepanning over drilling of unidirectional composites has been emphasised. The models for prediction of critical thrust and critical feed rate at the onset of delamination during trepanning of unidirectional composites based on fracture mechanics and plate theory also have been presented. Mathematical models correlating thrust and torque with tool diameter and feed rate have been developed through statistically designed experiments and effect of various parameters on them have been discussed. The critical feed rate is a function of strain energy release rate, elastic properties, sub-laminate thickness and diameter of the tool. It is observed that sub-laminate thickness is the most decisive parameter from the viewpoint of critical feed rates.     

Drilling analysis of chopped composites

This work investigates the effects of the drilling parameters, speed, and feed, on the required cutting forces and torques in drilling chopped composites with different fiber volume fractions. Three speeds, five feeds, and five fiber volume fractures are used in this study. The results show that feeds and fiber volumes have direct effects on thrust forces and torques. On the other hand, increasing the cutting speed reduces the associated thrust force and torque, especially at high feed values. Using multivariable linear regression analysis, empirical formulas that correlate favorably with the obtained results have been developed. These formulas would be useful in drilling chopped composites. The influence of cutting parameters on peel-up and push-out delaminations that occurs at drill entrance and drill exit respectively the specimen surfaces have been investigated. No clear effect of the cutting speed on the delamination size is observed, while the delamination size decreases with decreasing the feed. Delamination-free in drilling chopped composites with high fiber volume fraction remains as a problem to be further investigated.     

Experimental thrust forces and delamination analysis of GFRP laminates using candlestick drills

Drilling is usually performed using twist drills while assembling the composite components. However, it is necessary to adopt appropriate tool as the risk of delamination damage is high. Many researchers have performed experimental and theoretical study concerning drilling-induced delamination damage in composites utilizing special drills. The article performed drilling experiments of glass fiber reinforced plastic laminates utilizing candlestick drills. Ten candlestick drills with different drill tip geometries were compared in thrust forces and push down delamination. The results revealed the drilling behavior of the outer cutting edges and the outer drill tips for candlestick drill, and also indicated that the push down delamination depended on exit thrust force instead of maximum thrust force. What is more, thrust forces and push down delamination were significantly reduced when holes were produced using reasonable candlestick drill tip geometry. Finally, the analysis was useful for selecting appropriate candlestick drill tip geometry and conducting candlestick drill tip geometry optimization.     

Influence of process parameters on cutting force and torque during drilling of glass–fiber polyester reinforced composites

This research outlines the Taguchi optimization methodology, which is applied to optimize cutting parameters in drilling of glass fiber reinforced composite (GFRC) material. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to study the effect of process parameters on machining process. This procedure eliminates the need for repeated experiments, time and conserves the material by the conventional procedure. The drilling parameters and specimen parameters evaluated are speed, feed rate, drill size and specimen thickness. A series of experiments are conducted using TRIAC VMC CNC machining center to relate the cutting parameters and material parameters on the cutting thrust and torque. The measured results were collected and analyzed with the help of the commercial software package MINITAB14. An orthogonal array, signal-to-noise ratio are employed to analyze the influence of these parameters on cutting force and torque during drilling. The method could be useful in predicting thrust and torque parameters as a function of cutting parameters and specimen parameters. The main objective is to find the important factors and combination of factors influence the machining process to achieve low cutting low cutting thrust and torque. From the analysis of the Taguchi method indicates that among the all-significant parameters, speed and drill size are more significant influence on cutting thrust than the specimen thickness and the feed rate. Study of response table indicates that the specimen thickness, and drill size are the significant parameters of torque. From the interaction among process parameters, thickness and drill size together is more dominant factor than any other combination for the torque characteristic.     

基于复合材料钻削缺陷容差值的工艺参数优化

为实现复合材料层合板在一定钻削缺陷容差值内的工艺参数优化,首先利用SEM对复合材料的组织结构进行测试分析,获得了复合材料层合板的截面形貌和特征尺寸。然后进行钻削加工正交实验,测试了不同加工参数下的钻削轴向力和扭矩,对钻孔过程中产生的分层、撕裂和孔壁圆度误差等缺陷进行测量,分析了缺陷产生的机制,并对测量结果进行非线性拟合得到缺陷的变化规律。通过建立钻削缺陷与轴向力及扭矩偏差的关系,获得了轴向力和扭矩偏差的临界范围。最后以钻头的主轴转速、每转进给量及钻头结构参数中的横刃偏心系数为决策变量,以获得最大材料去除率为优化目标,以钻削缺陷容差值为约束条件,建立了复合材料钻削加工的参数优化模型。 使用MATLAB软件进行工艺参数优化,在保证复合材料钻削质量的前提下,得到了能够实现最大生产效率的钻削参数。     

Optimization of delamination factor in drilling GFR–polypropylene composites

Glass fiber-reinforced polypropylene composites often replace the conventional materials due to their special or unique mechanical properties. As the applications of these composites increase for a number of industries, drilling of these composites is inevitable for subsequent composite product manufacturing stage. In the drilling of composites, the thrust force is induced during the drilling operation; as a result, it causes damage. This damage is characterized by the delamination factor, which depends on the machining parameters such as speed of the spindle, feed rate, and drill diameter. The study on the delamination in the drilling of glass fiber-reinforced polypropylene is limited and has been carried out comprehensively. The effect of machining parameters on delamination in the drilling of glass fiber-strengthened polypropylene (GFR-PP) composites is studied through the Box–Bhenken design. Response surface method, along with the desirability analysis, is used for modeling and optimization of delamination factor in the drilling. The result proves that the models are effectively used to forecast the delamination in the drilling of GFR-PP composites. Also, the result indicates that the foremost issue that influences the delamination is the feed rate.     

双顶角钻头钻削CFRP复合材料的刀具磨损机制

为了研究碳纤维增强树脂基(CFRP)复合材料切削中刀具在不同部位的磨损机制和规律,以典型的硬质合金双顶角钻头作为研究对象,主要研究对出口分层影响较大的横刃和对最终制孔成型影响较大的第二主切削刃的磨损机制及规律。通过减小磨损测量间隔,并引入切削刃钝圆半径以及后刀面磨损带宽度,表征了横刃和第二主切削刃在加工中的衰变过程。基于显微刃口观测和钝圆半径变化,揭示横刃易崩刃和第二主切削刃磨损后又受到重新刃磨的磨损机制,获得了此类型钻头不同部位的磨损规律。同时,基于上述的磨损表征,研究不同切削部位磨损量对钻削轴向力和力矩的影响,横刃轴向力与横刃钝圆半径变化相关性较小,而钻削最大力矩与第二主切削刃后刀面磨损变化规律相一致。     

Thrust Force Analysis in Drilling Glass Fiber Reinforced/Polypropylene (GFR/PP) Composites

Glass fiber reinforced thermoplastic (GFRTP) composites are an important alternate to the conventional engineering materials owing to their good application-oriented properties. Drilling is unavoidable and an important operation used in automotive and aerospace industries in the assembly stage. The reduction of thrust force is required to minimize delamination. This paper examines the parameters that influence the thrust force on drilling glass fiber reinforced polypropylene (GFR/PP). The experiments are conducted using the Box–Behnken experimental design method. An empirical relation is established for determining the thrust induced in the drilling of GFRTP. The factors that affect the drilling process and their interaction are analyzed and presented in detail.     

Numerical Modeling of Exit-Ply Delamination During Drilling of CFRPs Considering Thermal Effects

Abstract

A finite element (FE) model for exit-ply delamination during drilling carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRPs) laminates is presented. The current FE model is developed to predict critical thrust force at the onset of delamination for 1 and 2 plies under the twist drill for various cutting temperatures. The interface behavior for delamination onset is modeled using surface based cohesive zone model (CZM). The numerical predictions for critical thrust force are compared with experimental thrust forces for various number of plies under the twist drill over a range of cutting temperature. Thrust force predictions were found to match with experimental data.     

Analysis of fracture mechanisms and surface quality in drilling of composite materials

The aim of this work is to clarify the interaction mechanisms between the drilling tool and material. Drilling tests were carried out on glass/polyester and carbon/epoxy composites using different twist drills. The cutting tools and machined surfaces were examined by optical microscopy, scanning microscopy and surface profilometry to study composite damage and tool wear. Among the defects caused by drilling, delamination appears to be the most critical and may occurs at both the entrance and exit planes. A prediction model of thrust force for drilling without delamination is proposed. __________ Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 1, pp. 48–51, January–February, 2008.     

Investigations on drilling of hemp/glass hybrid composites

The present study aimed to examine the influence of tool geometry, spindle speed and feed on thrust force (TF) and delamination in hybrid hemp-glass composites. The pure glass polyester, pure hemp polyester and hybrid hemp/glass polyester composite specimens were prepared using hand layup technique. The drilling experiments were performed according to the full factorial design. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the impact of layering arrangement of fibers, feed (0.06, 0.18, 0.3?mm/rev), speed (1000, 3000, 5000?rpm), tool geometry (Plexi Point, Brad, Parabolic) and their interactions on TF and delamination. It was observed that drill geometry is major determinant for TF and delamination. Empirical models were developed using regression analysis and grey relational analysis was performed for optimizing the input parameters for TF and delamination at entry and exit.     

A review of mechanical drilling for composite laminates

Composite laminates (CFRP, GFRP, and fiber metal composite laminates) are attractive for many applications (such as aerospace and aircraft structural components) due to their superior properties. Usually, mechanical drilling operation is an important final machining process for components made of composite laminates. However, composite laminates are regarded as hard-to-machine materials, which results in low drilling efficiency and undesirable drilling-induced delamination. Therefore, it is desirable to improve the cost-effectiveness of currently-available drilling processes and to develop more advanced drilling processes for composite laminates. Such improvement and development will benefit from a comprehensive literature review on drilling of composite laminates. This review paper summarizes an up-to-date progress in mechanical drilling of composite laminates reported in the literature. It covers drilling operations (including conventional drilling, grinding drilling, vibration-assisted twist drilling, and high speed drilling), drill bit geometry and materials, drilling-induced delamination and its suppressing approaches, thrust force, and tool wear. It is intended to help readers to obtain a comprehensive view on mechanical drilling of composite laminates.     

硬质合金台阶钻结构参数及钻削工艺参数对CFRP开孔性能的影响

基于VMC850B立式加工中心和UltraPAC超声C-扫描仪,搭建了碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料(CFRP)钻削试验平台,探讨了台阶钻结构参数及钻削工艺参数对CFRP钻削过程中的钻削轴向力和分层因子的影响。结果表明,钻削工艺参数对第一段钻削轴向力影响较大,台阶钻结构参数对第二段钻削轴向力的影响较大;分层因子的大小与第一段钻削轴向力和第二段钻削轴向力有关,当第一段和第二段直径比d/D0.5时,分层因子主要与第一段钻削轴向力有关;减小分层的优水平组合为第一段直径2.8mm,第二段锋角95°,主轴转速7000r/min,进给速度2.5mm/s。     

Critical thrust force at propagation of delamination zone due to drilling of FRP/metallic strips

A critical thrust force at propagation of delamination zone due to drilling of an infinite FRP/metallic strip is obtained by the definition of energy release rate.The critical thrust force is derived in terms of the size of the delamination zone. The differences of the results by the previous and present methods are discussed.     

Delamination and Surface Roughness Analyses in Drilling Hybrid Carbon/Glass Composite

Previous attempts at drilling of fibrous composites have been challenging due to the limited mechanical properties and presence of severe delamination damage at the top and bottom surfaces of the drilled hole. With the recent introduction of hybrid carbon/glass fiber reinforced polymer (HFRP) composites in both research literature and industrial applications, the need for evaluating their drillability is inevitable prior to their final usage. This is mainly because of the unique properties of HFRP composites as compared to the single-type FRP composites. Therefore, this paper aims to present a research initiative that will elucidate the high-range parametric effects of drilling control factors on delamination damage and surface quality. Taguchi methodology and statistical analysis of variance were applied to determine the performance of the drilling process. Experimental results revealed that delamination damage and surface quality values were strongly influenced by the feed and special tool geometries rather than the spindle rotational speed. Changes in the feed are likely to contribute to increase in the thrust force and strain rate on the workpiece. Confirmation tests have shown the closeness of the calculated values via a regression model and additive rule with the experimental values. This indicates that the regression model from the response surface can be employed to estimate delamination damage and surface roughness during drilling of HFRP composite.