Faceting mechanisms of Si nanowires and gold spreading

We report detailed structural analysis of 〈111〉 oriented silicon nanowires (NWs) grown by UHV–CVD using the VLS process with a gold catalyst. STEM-HAADF observations have revealed an unexpected inhomogeneous distribution of gold nanoclusters on the NW surface. Gold is mainly distributed on three sides among the six {112}-sidewalls and is anchored on upward {111} facets. This original observation brought us a new comprehension of the faceting mechanisms. The stability of the 〈111〉 growth direction needs the formation of facets on {112}-sidewalls with energetically favorable planes. We demonstrate that the initial formation of covered facets with a three-fold symmetry is driven by the formation of {111} Au/Si interfaces between the nucleated Si NW and the Au droplet.     

Transgranular fracture in low temperature brittle fracture of high nitrogen austenitic steel

Morphological features of transgranular fracture facets in low temperature brittle fracture of 18Cr–18Mn–0.7N high nitrogen austenitic steel have been studied by means of scanning electron microscopy and their formation mechanisms have been discussed. The transgranular fracture facets are fairly coarse compared with intergranular fracture facets and annealing twin boundary fracture facets. There are parallel steps and river patterns on the facets. Dual-surface observation indicated that these patterns are parallel to {111} planes and of strict crystallographic features. Microstructure observation shows that there are a lot of planar deformation structures formed prior to low temperature transgranular fracture. Transgranular fracture originates from microcracks formed at the intersections of the deformation structures on different {111} planes. These microcracks propagate toward adjacent microcracks on different {111} planes, forming transgranular fracture facets with steps and river patterns.     

Electron microscopy study of martensite in Cu–11.2 wt% Al–3 wt% Ni

The structures of martensites in a Cu–11.2 wt% Al–3 wt% Ni specimen, which was quenched from 1173 K, have been studied by high resolution electron microscopy (HREM) and diffraction techniques. Two kinds of martensites, i.e. β′1 and γ′1, coexisting adjacent to each other in the specimen were observed. The γ′1 matensite consists of microtwins with monoclinic structure. Three variants of the twin structure, i.e. {1 2 1}, {2 1 0} and {1 0 1} twins, are arranged within a single plate. The β′1 martensite possesses basically ordered N9R structure, but mixed with thin 2H domains. Some diffraction spots of this martensite shift along the [0 0 1] direction. In addition, extra weak reflections appear in the diffraction pattern due to heterogeneous atomic displacements. The microstructural features of the martensites are examined and discussed. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Texture evolution during hot-rolling and recrystallization in B2-type FeAl, NiAl and CoTi intermetallic compounds

The texture evolution during the hot-rolling and the recrystallization of B2-type Fe–48Al, Ni–50Al and Co–50Ti (expressed by at.%) intermetallic compounds were investigated. By hot-rolling at 973 K, Fe–48Al showed a microstructure with coarse grains elongated along rolling direction, while Ni–50Al and Co–50Ti showed a deformed microstructure featured by the heavily distorted (elongated) grains and/or the deformation bands. The hot-rolling texture of Fe–48Al was composed of {111}<uvw>, while those of Ni–50Al and Co–50Ti were composed of {111}<110> and {111}<112>, respectively. After annealing, the recrystallized grains were preferentially nucleated at the grain boundaries for Fe–48Al, and in the heavily distorted regions or the deformation bands for Ni–50Al and Co–50Ti. The orientations of the recrystallized grains were similar with those of the deformed matrix, especially for Ni–50Al and Co–50Ti. The recrystallization textures were generally more dispersive than the hot-rolling texture. Based on these results, the texture evolution during the hot rolling and the recrystallization of the B2-type intermetallic compounds were discussed.     

Temperature-dependent current–voltage and capacitance–voltage characteristics of the Ag/n-InP/In Schottky diodes

The current–voltage (I–V) and capacitance–voltage (C–V) characteristics of Ag/n-InP/In Schottky diodes have been studied in a wide temperature range by steps of 10 K. A decrease in the apparent barrier height (BH), , an increase in the ideality factor, and a nonlinearity in the activation energy plot with a decrease in temperature have been seen. The experimental values of BH and ideality factor for the devices were calculated as 0.61 eV and 1.18 at 320 K, 0.48 eV and 1.52 at 200 K, and 0.20 eV and 3.89 at 70 K, respectively. An abnormal decrease in the experimental BH and an increase in the ideality factor n with a decrease in temperature have been explained by the barrier inhomogeneities at the metal–semiconductor (MS) interface. From the temperature dependent I–V characteristics of the Ag/n-InP contact, that is, and A* as 0.79 and 0.55 eV, and 7.96 and , respectively, have been calculated from a modified vs. 1/T plot for the two temperature regions. The Richardson constant values are in close agreement with the value of known for n-type InP. Moreover, the difference between the apparent BHs obtained from the I–V and C–V characteristics has been attributed to the existence of Schottky BH inhomogeneity.     

Barrier characteristics of Pt/Ru Schottky contacts on <Emphasis Type="Italic">n</Emphasis>-type GaN based on <Emphasis Type="Italic">I–V–T</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">C–V–T</Emphasis> measurements

We have investigated the current–voltage (I–V) and capacitance–voltage (C–V) characteristics of Ru/Pt/n-GaN Schottky diodes in the temperature range 100–420 K. The calculated values of barrier height and ideality factor for the Ru/Pt/n-GaN Schottky diode are 0·73 eV and 1·4 at 420 K, 0·18 eV and 4·2 at 100 K, respectively. The zero-bias barrier height (Φ_b0) calculated from I–V characteristics is found to be increased and the ideality factor (n) decreased with increasing temperature. Such a behaviour of Φ_b0 and n is attributed to Schottky barrier (SB) inhomogeneities by assuming a Gaussian distribution (GD) of barrier heights (BHs) at the metal/semiconductor interface. The current–voltage–temperature (I–V–T) characteristics of the Ru/Pt/n-GaN Schottky diode have shown a double Gaussian distribution having mean barrier heights ( [`(F)]<sub>\textb0</sub> {\bar{{\Phi}}_{\text{b}0}} ) of 1·001 eV and 0·4701 eV and standard deviations (σ <sub>0</sub>) of 0·1491 V and 0·0708 V, respectively. The modified ln (J<sub>0</sub> /T<sup>2</sup> )-( q<sup>2</sup>s <sub>0</sub><sup>2</sup>/2k<sup>2</sup>T<sup>2</sup> ){ln} ({{J}_{0} /{T}^{2}} )-( {{q}^{2}{\sigma} _{0}^{2}/{2}{k}^{2}{T}^{2}} ) vs 10<sup>3</sup>/T plot gives [`(F)]_\textb0 \bar{{\Phi}}_{\text{b}0} and Richardson constant values as 0·99 eV and 0·47 eV, and 27·83 and 10·29 A/cm²K², respectively without using the temperature coefficient of the barrier height. The difference between the apparent barrier heights (BHs) evaluated from the I–V and C–V methods has been attributed to the existence of Schottky barrier height inhomogeneities.     

Microstructural evolution of annealed Al–5 wt% Ca–5 wt% Zn sheet alloy

Microstructural evolution on annealing of Al–5 wt% Ca–5 wt% Zn sheet alloy has been systematically investigated by means of texture analysis and optical and transmission electron microscopy. Heat treatments in the temperature range of 100 to 540 °C for times between 0.11 (7 min) and 90.5 h have been performed. After annealing, the main texture component of the as- received material, {1 1 3} <3 3 2>, was retained, whereas the minor components, {0 1 3} <3 1 0> and {0 1 1} <1 0 0>, showed clear changes depending on the annealing conditions. Additional minor components appeared upon heat treatments. Continuous recrystallization, subgrain accommodation by means of rotation and subsequent extensive grain growth are the processes which account for all the microstructural changes observed. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Magnetic and Superconducting Properties of Doped and Undoped Double Perovskite Sr<Subscript>2</Subscript>YRuO<Subscript>6</Subscript>

We report here SQUID (magnetization) measurements, along with supporting specific heat, Raman, SEM (scanning electron microscope), EDX (energy dispersive X-ray) and XRD (X-ray diffraction) measurements, on Cu-doped and undoped double perovskite Sr₂²⁺Y³⁺Ru⁵⁺O₆^2-\mathrm{Sr}_{2}^{2+}\mathrm{Y}^{3+}\mathrm{Ru}^{5+}\mathrm{O}_{6}^{2-} (abbreviated as SrY2116) system grown as single crystal using high-temperature solution growth technique. These measurements show the undoped system to be a nonmetallic (insulating) spin glass (SG) and the ∼5–30% Cu-doped (i.e. Cu-concentration/(Cu + Ru-concentration) ∼5–30%) system to be a spin glass superconductor (SGSC) with T _c (critical temperature) ∼28–31 K and superconducting volume fraction, f _sc∼2.2–9%. To mention, similar measurements done on undoped and Cu-doped BaY2116 and BaPr2116 systems show for them the same (SG, SGSC) behaviors. However they show a decrease in T _c and f _sc when diamagnetic Y³⁺ ions are replaced by Pr³⁺ spins, presumably due to enhanced internal pair breaking, and also decreased Cu–O–Cu overlap, owing to Pr³⁺ presence; these phenomena are known to exist in the Pr123 compound, PrBa₂Cu₃O_7−δ (δ∼0), due to ∼10% of Pr³⁺ ions having tendency to occupy Ba²⁺ sites. Measurements done on undoped and Cu-doped SrHo2116 show similar SG and SGSC properties. Further, the undoped and Cu-doped SrY2116 crystals grown by hydrothermal growth technique (i.e., grown using lower temperature and high pressure) show same behaviors. From these investigations it can be said that the undoped Ru-double perovskites (A₂BB′O₆, B′=Ru) are SG systems and that Cu-doped Ru-double perovskites (A₂BB′O _δ , δ∼6, B′=Ru_1−x Cu _x , 0<x≲0.3) are SG superconductors (SGSCs). Results are discussed.     

Coarsening of δ-Ni<Subscript>2</Subscript>Si precipitates in a Cu–Ni–Si alloy

The coarsening behavior of rod-shaped and spherical δ-Ni₂Si precipitates in a Cu–1.86 wt% Ni–0.45 wt% Si alloy during aging at 823–948 K has been investigated by measuring both precipitate size by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and solute concentration in the Cu matrix by electrical resistivity. The rod-shaped δ precipitates have an elongated shape along 〈[`5] 5 8 \overline{5} 5 8 〉_m and a {110}_m habit-plane facet. The coarsening theory of a spherical precipitate in a ternary alloy developed by Kuehmann and Voorhees (KV) has been modified to a case of rod-shaped precipitates. The coarsening kinetics of average size of the rod-shaped and spherical δ precipitates with aging time t obey the t ^1/3 time law, as predicted by the modified KV theory. The kinetics of depletion of the supersaturation with t are coincident with the predicted t ^−1/3 time law. Application of the modified KV theory has enabled calculation of the energies of sphere, {110}_m and rod-end interfaces from the data on coarsening alone. The energy of the {110}_m interface having a high degree of coherency to the Cu matrix is estimated to be 0.4 J m⁻², the incoherent sphere-interface energy 0.6 J m⁻², and the rod-end interface energy 5.2 J m⁻².     

Temperature dependence of carrier mobility in undoped and gadolinium-doped <Emphasis Type="Italic">p</Emphasis>-GaSe crystals

We have studied the temperature dependence of carrier mobility (μ) in undoped and gadolinium-doped p-GaSe crystals. The results demonstrate that, in the temperature range 77–420 K, the carrier mobility in high-resistivity p-GaSe〈Gd〉 crystals increases at low temperatures as a power law. At high temperatures, μ(T) has a maximum and varies roughly as $T^{ - \tfrac{3} {2}} $T^{ - \tfrac{3} {2}} . In addition, μ is a nonmonotonic function of gadolinium content. The observed anomalies in the temperature dependence of carrier mobility in the crystals studied are due to partial disorder in these materials. The present experimental data can be interpreted in terms of a two-barrier energy-band model of partially disordered semiconductors.     

Synthesis and thermal expansion hysteresis of Ca<Subscript>1-x</Subscript>Sr<Subscript>x</Subscript>Zr<Subscript>4</Subscript>P<Subscript>6</Subscript>O<Subscript>24</Subscript>

The low thermal expansion ceramic system, Ca_1-xSr{x}Zr₄P₆O₂₄, for the compositions with x = 0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1 was synthesized by solid-state reaction. The sintering characteristics were ascertained by bulk density measurements. The fracture surface microstructure examined by scanning electron microscopy showed the average grain size of 2.47 μm for all the compositions. The thermal expansion data for these ceramic systems over the temperature range 25–800°C is reported. The sinterability of various solid solutions and the hysteresis in dilatometric behaviour are shown to be related to the crystallographic thermal expansion anisotropy. A steady increase in the amount of porosity and critical grain size with increase in x is suggested to explain the observed decrease in the hysteresis.     

Transient charging and discharging current study in pure PVF and PVF/PVDF fluoro polyblends for application in microelectronics

The transient current were analysed by considering the effect of variation of forming time, temperature, field and composition of blend specimens. Measurements indicated that transient charging and discharging currents exhibited thermally activated character but did not show mirror image behaviour at different temperatures and field values. The log I\emph{I}–log t\emph{t} plots were found to follow the Curie–Von Schweidler law with the value of decay constant ‘n\emph{n}’ lying in the range of 0·029–2·9456. These observed characteristics also indicated that the transient charging in PVF:PVDF fluoro polyblends occur partly due to orientation of dipoles but predominantly due to trapped space charges and hopping of charge carriers amongst localized states. The modification in transient behaviour on blending PVDF with PVF have been explained on the basis of plasticization effect which increases free volume and molecular mobility and T _g modification in the trap structure.     

Hydrothermal processing of barium strontium titanate sol-gel composite thin films

Stoichiometric barium strontium titanate (BST) films of composition with thickness >2 μm have been fabricated on Si/SiO₂/Pt substrates by hydrothermal sol-gel composite processing. This film deposition technique involves the treatment of a spun-on sol-gel composite film, formed from a suspension of a powder in an aqueous BST sol-gel, at temperatures from 100–200°C at a pressure of 1–15 atm. An initial hydrolysis procedure eliminates dissolution of the dried sol-gel during the hydrothermal treatment. Glancing angle X-ray diffraction shows excellent crystallinity and stoichiometry in the BST films with no evidence of new phases created during processing. Scanning electron micrography and atomic force microscopy show densification of the film structure and the development of a bridging microstructure. Transmission electron micrography indicates that while much of the sol-gel derived matrix phase is amorphous a more crystalline interface occurs with the powder particles. The relative permittivity and loss tangent of the films are measured using a parallel plate capacitor technique in the frequency range 1–100 kHz. At 100 kHz relative permittivities of the films range from ɛ_r = 400–1200 and loss tangents lie in the range 0.05 < tan δ < 0.10, depending on the parameters of film preparation. The film structure and morphology and the electrical studies suggest that the microstructure of the films evolves by deposition of the sol-gel derived BST on the underlying powder, resulting in an electrically interconnected microstructure in which the sol-gel derived material bridges between the high permittivity powder particles.     

Constitutive analysis of compressive deformation behavior of ELI-grade Ti–6Al–4V with different microstructures

In this study, a constitutive analysis of the flow responses of Ti–6Al–4V under various strain rates [(e)\dot] \dot{\varepsilon } was conducted by separately quantifying the hardening and softening effects of microstructure, interstitial solute and deformation heating on the total stress. For this purpose, a series of compression tests on an extra-low interstitial grade alloy with equiaxed, lamellar, or bimodal microstructures was performed at 10 ^{- 3} ￡ [(e)\dot] ￡ 10  \texts ^{- 1} 10^{ - 3} \le \dot{\varepsilon } \le 10\;{\text{s}}^{ - 1} until the metal fractured, and the results were compared to those of the commercial grade alloy. The thermal stress σ^* increased with an increasing interstitial solute concentration; the athermal stress increased in the order of equiaxed, lamellar, and bimodal microstructures. Load–unload–reload tests revealed that the flow softening at a relatively high [(e)\dot] \dot{\varepsilon } was likely caused by deformation heating rather than by microstructure change; thus flow softening was attributed to a decrease in σ^*. Finally, a mechanical threshold stress model was extended to capture those observations; the modified model can provide a reasonable prediction of flow stress in Ti–6Al–4V with different microstructures and interstitial solute concentrations.     

Magnetic susceptibility and effective magnetic moment of the Nd3+ and Co3+ ions in NdCo1 ? x Ga x O3

The magnetic susceptibility of NdCo_{1 − x} Ga _x O₃ (x = 0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1) has been measured at temperatures from 80 to 950 K. The effective magnetic moments (μ_eff) due to the magnetic moments of the Co³⁺ and Nd³⁺ ions have been determined in the temperature ranges of Curie-Weiss behavior, 130–370 and 600–940 K, and have then been used, together with the effective magnetic moment of Nd³⁺ (3.62μ_B or 4.20μ_B), to evaluate the effective magnetic moment of Co³⁺ in NdCo_{1 − x} Ga _x O₃. For the solid solutions with < 2.83μ_B, we have determined the fractions of intermediate-and low-spin Co³⁺ ions. In the range 2.83μ_B < < 4.90μ_B, we have determined the fraction of high-spin Co³⁺ ions. The results indicate that, in the temperature range 130–370 K, the Co³⁺ ions in NdCo_{1 − x} Ga _x O₃ with x = 0, 0.5, 0.8, and 0.9 are in the intermediate-and high-spin states, and the fraction of high-spin Co³⁺ ions gradually increases from 10% at x = 0 to 67% at x = 0.9. In the solid solutions with x = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.7, more than half of the Co³⁺ ions are in the low-spin state, and the rest are in the intermediate-spin state. In the temperature range 600–940 K, the Nd³⁺ ions are in the ground and excited states, with theoretically predicted of of 3.62μ_B and 5.52μ_B, respectively. Because of the significant uncertainty in in this temperature range, has been determined less accurately compared to the range 130–370 K. Original Russian Text ? N.N. Lubinskii, L.A. Bashkirov, A.I. Galyas, S.V. Shevchenko, G.S. Petrov, I.M. Sirota, 2008, published in Neorganicheskie Materialy, 2008, Vol. 44, No. 9, pp. 1137–1143.     

Orientation of silicon particles in a binary Al–Si alloy

The orientations Si-crystals take in aluminium, in an alloy with composition Al–1.3at%Si, were investigated by transmission electron microscopy. Hardness was measured for isothermal heat-treatments at 175 °C and 260 °C. Conditions analysed by TEM were 17 h at 175 °C and an additional 3 h at 260 °C, both containing a high density of small Si-crystals, the finest corresponding to 175 °C. Two main orientation relationships were found: The first accounted for approximately 60% of Si precipitates in condition 17 h_175 °C. Despite a high number density and well-aligned interfaces, the Si precipitates have negligible influence on hardness. Findings are consistent with Ge particles in Al–Ge alloys.     

Dislocations studies in β-silicon nitride

Some preliminary results of dislocation analysis and associated glide systems in as-grown as well as in superplastically deformed β silicon nitride are presented. Transmission electron microscopy observations using the weak-beam technique, are reported. [0 0 0 1] {1 0 1 0} and 1/3〈1 2 1 0〉 {1 0 1 1} glide systems have been characterized. In the basal plane, a superposition of two hexagonal networks built with screw dipoles has been observed. Both a sequence extended node–constricted node and partial dislocations have been identified in these networks which clearly evinces dislocation dissociation in β-silicon nitride following the reaction 1/3〈2 1 1 0〉→1/3 〈1 0 1 0〉+1/3 〈1 1 0 0〉. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Viscoelastic properties of composites of calcium alginate and hydroxyapatite

Calcium alginate was reinforced with hydroxyapatite (HA) particles, whose dimensions were a few micrometres, with mass fraction, m _f, values in the range 0–0.8. Cylindrical samples of these composite materials were subjected to cyclic compression in the frequency range f = 0.001–20 Hz; in these tests a sinusoidal load of amplitude 1 N was applied either side of a static compression of 2 N. Storage and loss moduli, E′ and E′′, respectively, were found to be independent of particle size; however, E′ increased with frequency consistent with the materials undergoing a glass transition. Above frequencies of about 0.05 Hz, for all materials. For each frequency, the dependence of the moduli on log₁₀ f could be represented by a third order polynomial; these equations can be used to calculate E′ and E′′ for a range of compositions. Approximate values of are predicted by a Reuss model.     

Orientation relations between carbon nanotubes grown by chemical vapour deposition and residual iron-containing catalysts

Orientation relationships between the growth direction of carbon nanotubes and encapsulated residual iron-containing particles have been determined using transmission electron microscopy. The nanotubes that are prepared by Fe-catalysed chemical vapour deposition on sol–gel Fe(NO₃)₃-tetraethyl orthosilicate substrates are the helical multiwall type. Nanoscale particles of both the low-temperature α-Fe (ferrite) and high-temperature γ-Fe (austenite) were found in the cavity of the carbon nanotubes with , and parallel to the tube growth direction, respectively. Cementite Fe₃C, the most abundant Fe-containing phase in present samples was also found to be entrapped in nanotubes with or parallel to the tube axis. The metastable retention of γ-Fe particles at room temperature is ascribed to the strain energy induced at the particle-nanotube interface due to volume expansion upon the γ- → α-Fe phase transformation. The decomposition of initially high aspect-ratio, rod-shape particles into a string of ovulation, while encapsulated in carbon nanotubes is accounted for by the Rayleigh instability. Ovulation leading to reduced particle size has also contributed to increase the surface energy term that counterbalances the total free energy change of phase transformation from γ- to α-Fe and further aids to the metastable retention of γ-Fe.     

Determination of the parent grain orientation and habit plane normals for β′1 martensite in a Cu–Al–Ni–Mn shape memory alloy

Martensite plates in β′₁ shape memory alloys commonly form self-accommodating groups of four plate variants with habit plane normals clustered about a {1 1 0} pole of the parent phase. In the present work, the crystallography of martensitic transformation in a Cu–Al–Ni–Mn shape memory alloy has been investigated with particular emphasis on accurate habit plane determination. The characteristically high martensite start (M _s) temperature of β′₁ alloys makes it impossible to analyse samples containing isolated plates within a β₁ grain at ambient temperature. However, the parent β₁ grain orientation has been determined in this work by means of a new method of junction plane trace analysis, which is based on the knowledge that the junction planes are precisely {1 1 0}_β1 planes. The mutual consistency of the experimental results indicates that this technique of junction plane traces analysis is a viable method for determining the parent β₁ grain orientation. Habit plane normals were determined by two surface trace measurements and referred to the parent crystal basis by using the β₁ grain orientation matrix. The habit plane normal was determined to be close to {1 5 5}_β1 with the scatter in a series of mean value determinations being less than ± 1.2°. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.