R1234yf and R1234ze(E) as low-GWP refrigerants for residential heat pump water heaters

Owing to the growing concerns about the relatively high global warming potential (GWP) of current refrigerants, a serious effort is in progress to find lower-GWP substitutes. The hydrofluoroolefin (HFO)-based refrigerants R1234yf and R1234ze(E) are being considered for use in multiple heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration applications because of their very low GWP. A study was conducted to model a residential heat pump water heater using these HFOs. A system model was calibrated using experimental data and the calibrated model was used to evaluate the potential of HFOs to replace R134a. A series of parametric analyses were used to investigate the impacts of condenser wrap pattern, condenser tube size, evaporator size, and heat loss factor from the storage tank. It has been shown that both R1234yf and R1234ze(E) can be substituted for R134a with comparable performance and no substantial modifications to the original system. This study presents a detailed feasibility analysis for successful replacement of high-GWP refrigerants with low-GWP refrigerants with acceptable performance.     

Condensation heat transfer coefficients of R1234yf on plain, low fin, and Turbo-C tubes

In this study, external condensation heat transfer coefficients (HTCs) of HFC134a and R1234yf are measured on a plain, low fin, and Turbo-C tubes at the saturated vapor temperature of 39 °C with the wall subcooling of 3-8 °C. R1234yf is a new alternative refrigerant of low greenhouse warming potential for replacing HFC134a, one of the greenhouse gases in Kyoto protocol, used extensively in automobile air conditioners and other refrigeration systems. Test results show that the condensation HTCs of R1234yf are very similar to those of HFC134a for all three surfaces tested. For the development of heat transfer correlations, thorough property measurements are needed for R1234yf in the near future.     

Second law analysis of an automotive air conditioning system using HFO-1234yf,an environmentally friendly refrigerant

In this paper, a comparative study of the second law of thermodynamics is presented to determine the possibility of using HFO-1234yf, an environmentally friendly refrigerant, as a drop-in replacement of HFC-134a in automotive air conditioning system. For the thermodynamic analysis, a computer program is written to simulate the operating conditions of automobile air conditioning system. The thermodynamic properties of the refrigerants are extracted from the REFPROP 8.0 software. For calculating the coefficient of performance (COP), exergy destruction, exergy efficiency and entropy generation, computational models are used to evaluate the effects of different parameters on their changes. It is found that using HFO-1234yf as the air conditioning refrigerant leads to higher exergy efficiency compared to HFC-134a. Also, maximum entropy generation and exergy destruction occur in the compressor. The exergy destruction and entropy generation of the cycle components are less in the case of using HFO-1234yf refrigerant instead of HFC-134a.     

Development and validation of a micro-fin tubes evaporator model using R134a and R1234yf as working fluids

This paper presents a model of shell and tube evaporator with micro-fin tubes using R1234yf and R134a. The model developed for this evaporator uses the ε-NTU method to predict the evaporating pressure, the refrigerant outlet enthalpy and the outlet temperature of the secondary fluid. The model accuracy is evaluated using different two-phase flow boiling correlations for micro-fin tubes and comparing predicted and experimental data. The experimental tests were carried out for a wide range of operating conditions using R134a and R1234yf as working fluids. The predicted parameter with maximum deviations, between the predicted and experimental data, is the evaporating pressure. The correlation of Akhavan– Behabadi et al. was used to predict flow boiling heat transfer, with an error on cooling capacity prediction below 5%. Simulations, carried out with this validated model, show that the overall heat transfer coefficient of R1234yf has a maximum decrease of 10% compared with R134a.     

R1234yf热泵技术综述与潜力分析

为了满足逐步严苛的环保法规要求,R1234yf成为车用热泵制冷剂R134a的热门替代制冷剂之一。本文对R1234yf热泵技术的研究进行了综述与分析,其GWP<1,各方面性质均符合车用热泵系统的工作需求。在传热效果上,R1234yf的沸腾传热性能略优于R134a,且冷凝过程压降比R134a低5%~10%,优于R134a系统。在诸多R1234yf和R134a系统的仿真和实验研究中,R1234yf热泵性能略低于R134a,但可以通过优化零部件、强化补气、改善工况等方式使其与R134a十分接近甚至超越。R1234yf低压饱和压力比R134a高约15%,可以适配更高的压缩机转速,低温下制热性能比R134a更好,且较低的压缩机排气温度使系统工作更为稳定,强化补气的效果也优于R134a。因此,R1234yf在车用热泵中具有较好的工作性能和发展前景,可以作为R134a的替代制冷剂。     

Drop-in replacement in a R134 ejector refrigeration cycle by HFO refrigerants

The present work reports a numerical analysis of a single-phase supersonic ejector working with R134a as well as hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) refrigerants R1234yf and R1234ze(E). Comparisons were made regarding the ejector performances under varying operating conditions and refrigerant mixture proportions. The calculations have been then extended to an existing ejector heat driven refrigeration cycle (EHDRC). R1234yf appears to be a good candidate for drop-in replacement of R134a in a real EHDRC, while using R1234ze(E) would induce some modifications due to its thermodynamic properties. Maintaining the same pressure ratio for the ejector would lead on one hand to better entrainment ratio using R1234ze(E) and on the other hand to reduced coefficient of performance (COP) and cooling power by 4.2% and 26.6% in average, respectively. Using R1234yf under the same conditions induces a decrease of 5.2% for the entrainment ratio, 9.6% for the COP and 19.8% for the cooling power in average.     

Theoretical energy performance evaluation of different single stage vapour compression refrigeration configurations using R1234yf and R1234ze(E) as working fluids

R1234yf and R1234ze(E) have been proposed as alternatives for R134a in order to work with low GWP refrigerants, but this replacement results generally in a decrease of the performance. For this reason, it is interesting to explore ways to improve the system performance using these refrigerants. In this paper, a comparative study in terms of energy performance of different single stage vapour compression configurations using R1234yf and R1234ze(E) as working fluids has been carried out. The most efficient configuration is the one which uses an expander or an ejector as expansion device. On the other hand, using an internal heat exchanger in a cycle which replaces the expansion valve by an expander or an ejector could produce a detrimental effect on the COP. However, for all the configurations the introduction of an internal heat exchanger produces a significant increment on the cooling capacity.     

新一代制冷剂HFO-1234yf的热物性模型

基于Peng-Robinson通用状态方程,采用基团贡献原理以及多项式拟合方法,建立了符合精度要求的新型LGWP制冷剂HFO-1234yf的热物性模型,并对模型进行了验证,利用数学软件对模型进行编程求解,得到了较为全面的HFO-1234yf制冷剂的热物性数据。将HFO-1234yf制冷剂与R134a及R417A制冷剂的热物性能进行了对比,结果显示HFO-1234yf的饱和蒸汽压力与定压比热容和R134a的表现相似,二者的饱和蒸气压均低于R417A,HFO-1234yf制冷剂与R134a和R417A相比,其饱和状态焓值较低,这将导致HFO-1234y系统运行时的性能系数不高。该模型能为HFO-1234yf制冷剂在汽车空调以及固定式空调制冷设备上的应用提供理论依据。     

Exergy analysis of R1234yf and R1234ze as R134a replacements in a two evaporator vapour compression refrigeration system

Exergy analysis is a useful way for determining the real thermodynamic losses and optimising environmental and economic performance in the systems such as vapour compression refrigeration systems. The present study deals with the exergy analysis on a two evaporator vapour compression refrigeration system using R1234yf, R1234ze and R134a as refrigerants. In the calculation of losses occurring in different system components, besides the exergy efficiency of the refrigeration cycle, a computer code was developed by using Engineering Equation Solver (EES-V9.172-3D) software package program. The effects of the evaporator and condenser temperatures on the exergy destruction and exergy efficiency of the system were investigated. R1234yf and R1234ze, which are good alternatives to R134a concerning their environmentally friendly properties and this is the most significant finding emerging from this study.     

Evaluation of optimal subcooling in subcritical heat pump systems

The performance of a transcritical cycle is highly dependent on the rejection pressure. The optimal rejection pressure depends mainly on the inlet and outlet temperatures at the heat sink (secondary fluid). For the subcritical cycles, recent studies have demonstrated that the performance of these systems depends significantly on the degree of subcooling and its optimal value varies depending on the application. This paper presents a general methodology to calculate the optimal subcooling depending on the boundary conditions. The refrigerants R290, R134a, R1234yf and R32 are analyzed. Exergy analysis is used in order to see the subcooling effect at condenser and expansion valve independently. The optimal subcooling strongly depends on the temperature lift at the secondary fluid, and it is found when two pinch points are given in the condenser, one at the condenser outlet and another one inside the condenser (at the refrigerant dew point).     

Energy performance evaluation of R1234yf,R1234ze(E), R600a,R290 and R152a as low-GWP R134a alternatives

In 2014, the Directive 517/2014 was introduced by European Parliament to reduce the use of high-GWP greenhouse gases in the European area in order to limit global climate change in accordance with the objectives marked by the EU Research and Innovation programme Horizon 2020. These restrictions affect the large majority of artificial refrigerants among which R134a is included due to its relatively high GWP₁₀₀ (1301). The widely used of R134a in the refrigeration and air conditioning fields reveals the need to identify new low-GWP alternatives. Accordingly, in this work five low-GWP R134a possible choices have been tested and compared in an identical refrigerating facility equipped with a hermetic compressor, under the same operating conditions.The refrigerants used in this analysis are: R290 and R600a (HCs); R134a and R152a (HFCs), and finally, R1234yf and R1234ze(E) (HFOs). All of them have been assayed without changes in the facility, that is, as direct drop-ins. The results obtained from the experimental tests are presented and commented in this work from the energetic point of view.     

Experimental study of R1234yf as a drop-in replacement for R134a in a domestic refrigerator

This paper presents an experimental study for three identical domestic refrigerators using R1234yf as a drop-in replacement for R134a. An alternative methodology was proposed to estimate the optimal mass charge for R1234yf; with the use of such methodology, new evidences were sought on the thermal behavior of the refrigerator compartments as well as at the heat exchangers. Additionally, energy performance for both refrigerants was measured, and, finally, a TEWI analysis was conducted. For the type of refrigerator evaluated, results showed that R1234yf presented an average (for the 3 refrigerators) of 0.4 °C for the fresh food compartment, and 1.2 °C for the freezer, among different charges with respect to R134a. The optimal charge for R1234yf was 92.2 g, which is about 7.8% lower than the one for R134a, which represents a small increase of 4% in energy consumption in comparison to R134a. Finally, the TEWI analysis for the R1234yf was 1.07% higher than the R134a.     

R1234yf/R290/R134a系气液相平衡的模拟

本文从理论方面研究了混合制冷剂的相平衡特性,基于Peng-Robinson(PR)状态方程与Wong-Sandler(WS)混合法则,结合Predictive Soave Redlich Kwong(PSRK)方程中使用的UNIFAC基团贡献法,构建了混合物气液相平衡预测模型(PRWS-UNIFAC-PSRK)。结果表明:二元混合物R32/R1234yf的压力及气相质量分数的模拟结果与实验值偏差分别在±2.5%和±0.02内;三元混合物R134a/R1234yf/R600a的压力及气相组分质量分数计算值与实验数据的偏差基本在±3%和±0.04内;建立了R1234yf/R290/R134a系的三元相平衡图,当质量分数在0.25/0.70/0.05左右时存在共沸点。通过采用多参数状态方程,改进活度系数模型,获取更为准确的二元相互作用系数,可进一步提高模型的预测精度。     

R1234yf整车汽车空调泄漏扩散研究

新能源电动汽车热管理系统与传统乘用车不同,对采用热泵空调系统并利用液冷冷却电池的新能源电动汽车,制冷剂充注量比传统汽车空调增加了400～800 g.若使用可燃制冷剂,泄漏扩散至乘员舱,燃烧风险将增大.本文通过数值模拟对R1234yf制冷剂在蒸发器破损泄漏随送风进入乘员舱后的浓度变化过程和最高浓度进行了动态监测.结果表明...     

Characterization and simulation of an open piston compressor for application on automotive air-conditioning systems operating with R134a,R1234yf and R290

A semi-empirical characterization and simulation model for automotive air-conditioning open piston compressor is developed. The model is based on fundamental conservation principles and takes into account pressure drop and heat transfer in suction and discharge passages. Fundamental conservation principles equations, as well as volumetric and isentropic efficiencies, pressure drop, heat transfer and property equations are combined to form a system of non-linear algebraic equations. They are worked out so as to identify constants that are sole characteristics of the compressor and should not vary with different operating conditions or refrigerants. A numerical method determines such constants from existing experimental data, thus characterizing the compressor. Experimental data were obtained from tests carried out by Navarro et al. (2013) for an open piston compressor running with fluids R134a, R1234yf and R290. First, the experimental data were employed to determine the characterization parameters of the compressor. Then, the simulation model, with the R134a-based parameters, was applied to simulate the compressor operation with R1234yf and R290. Good agreement was obtained between predicted and experimental values, proving the suitability of the model for the study of new refrigerants.     

Experimental study of an R1234ze(E)/R134a mixture (R450A) as R134a replacement

This work presents an experimental analysis of a non-flammable R1234ze(E)/R134a mixture (R450A) as R134a drop-in replacement. While R134a has a high GWP value (1430), the R450A GWP is only 547. The experimental tests are carried out in a vapour compression plant equipped with a variable-speed compressor. The replacement suitability has been studied combining different operating conditions: evaporation temperature, condensation temperature and the use of an internal heat exchanger (IHX). The drop-in cooling capacity of R450A compared with R134a is 6% lower as average. R450A COP is even higher to those resulting with R134a (approximately 1%). The discharge temperature of R450A is lower than that of R134a, 2K as average. The IHX has a similar positive influence on the energy performance of both fluids. In conclusion, R450A can be considered as a good candidate to replace R134a.     

Numerical research on R32/R1234ze(E) air source heat pump under variable mass concentration

R32/R1234ze(E) mixtures are potentially low-GWP alternative refrigerants for air conditioning and heat pumps while the rare pure refrigerants can totally meet the requirements of new international protocols on environmental conservation, thermodynamic performance, and safety. The system performance under different concentrations is important for selection of working concentration for the new R32/R1234ze(E) refrigeration or heat pump. In this paper, the thermodynamic model of an ASHP with R32/R1234ze(E) mixtures is built and used to investigate the influence of the refrigerant composition on the performance of the system. The results show that when the mass fraction of R1234ze(E) changes from 0% to 100%, the heating capacity of the ASHP decreases by 67.2%, while the COP continuously increases by 70.3%, which means the changing tendency of system COP is quite different from previous research under fixed evaporating and condensing temperature. Adjusting the refrigerant concentration will be a good system modulation method for ASHPs with R32/R1234ze(E) to meet both the heating capacity and energy efficiency requirements. Furthermore, temperature matching degree is an important factor that affects the energy efficiency of ASHPs with non-azeotropes, which can guide the circuitry optimization of evaporator and condenser in ASHPs with non-azeotropes.     

HFO-1234yf——新一代汽车空调制冷剂

介绍一种新型的应用于汽车空调系统的制冷剂HFO-1234yf。该制冷剂的典型特点是具有很低的全球变暖潜值（GWP=4）,且对于使用R134a制冷剂的汽车空调系统是一种潜在的且经济的直接替代方案。汽车空凋台架测试和实车性能试验的结果表明,直接充注HFO-1234yf制冷剂后,系统制冷量和COP与原R134a系统偏差均在5％左右。关于材料相容性方面,均可以直接使用POE和PAG润滑油,与橡胶的兼容性及软管密封性方面未见不良反应。危险性试验评估结果显示,该制冷剂为低毒性,且毒性低于R134a;实车泄漏试验测试表明,制冷剂泄漏时,遇到明火不会导致燃烧加剧。     

小通道钎焊板式冷凝器性能仿真与实验研究

本文针对当量直径为1.5 mm的小通道钎焊板式冷凝器的换热和压降特性进行了仿真和实验研究。采用有限体积法建立了一维稳态分布参数模型,对R134a和R1234yf两种制冷剂在板间冷凝换热的性能进行仿真模拟,并对模型进行了实验验证。实验结果表明:本文所建立的仿真模型精度较高,换热性能平均误差为4%,压降平均误差为16%,可用于分析换热器的整体性能。最后用此模型仿真对比了R134a和R1234yf在小通道钎焊板式换热器内的冷凝换热特性,结果显示,在相同工况下,用R1234yf替代R134a,传热系数平均下降9%,压降平均下降8%。     

强非共沸工质R1234yf/R170/R14系气液相平衡的模拟

超额吉布斯自由能-状态方程法(G~E-EoS)是继传统的状态方程法和活度系数法之后预测气液相平衡的一个新思路。本文采用PRWS-UNIFAC-PSRK模型对R161/R1234yf、R32/R125/R134a及强非共沸工质R1234yf/R170/R14系的气液相平衡数据进行计算。结果表明:R161/R1234yf系压力和气相组分质量分数的计算值与实验值的偏差在±1.5%和±0.02以内,优于REFPROP9.0软件的计算结果,而R32/R125/R134a系的偏差分别在±4%和±0.02以内。根据计算结果及三维相平衡图发现,R1234yf/R170/R14在质量分数比为0.4/0.2/0.4附近时体系的温度滑移现象最为明显,最大的滑移温度达到72.5 K;且R1234yf组分的质量分数越大,泡点温度与露点温度越高。