Application of T-shape friction test for AZ31 and AZ80 magnesium alloys at elevated temperatures

T-shape side pressing experiment is a sort of friction test which, recently, is employed for evaluation of friction for bulk metal forming processes. One of important advantages of this experiment, compared with other friction tests such as the ring compression test, is the occurrence of appropriate surface enlargement during the deformation of the specimen. This paper is concerned with experimental and numerical studies on this test, when it is used for some magnesium alloys such as AZ31 and AZ80. Based on the experimental results, it was found that the friction sensitivity of T-shape experiment increased when the die edge radius decreased or the test temperature or ram velocity increased. Good repeatability of this test was also observed during experimental part of this research work. Finally, employing the flow curves gained from the compression tests and friction factors obtained from the T-shape experiments for the finite-element simulations of this test, resulted in a very good agreement between the numerical and experimental load curves.     

Deformed microstructure evolution in AM60B Mg alloy under hypervelocity impact at a velocity of 5 km s

Deformed microstructure in AM60B Mg alloy under hypervelocity impact at a velocity of 5 km s⁻¹ were investigated through optical microscope, scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope. The results show that four deformed zones around the crater can be classified based on the different deformed microstructure, including ultrafine grain zone, ultrafine grain and deformation twin zone, high and low density deformation twin zones. The dislocation slipping, deformation twins and ultrafine grains are the dominant components in the four deformed zones, and the evolution of deformed microstructure is speculated based on the deformed microstructure observed in four zones. Slipping and twinning play a critical role for the formation of the dynamic recrystallized grains, and twinning-induced rotational dynamic recrystallization mechanism is thought to be the main mechanism for the formation of ultrafine grains. The microhardness and dynamic compressive strength in different deformed zones were measured, and the high microhardness and yield strength in ultrafine grain zone should be attributed to the strain hardening and grain refining.     

Microstructural aspects and mechanical properties of friction stir welded AA2024-T3 aluminium alloy sheet

In the present work, aluminium alloy AA2024-T3 thin sheets were joined by the Friction Stir Welding – FSW – process. Butt joints were obtained in 1.6 mm sheets, using an advancing speed of 700 mm/min. These joints were characterised by optical, scanning electron microscopy, tensile and fatigue mechanical tests. The results showed that the resulting microstructure is free of defects and the tensile strength of the welded joints is up to 98% of the base-metal strength. Fatigue tests result indicates an equivalent stress intensity factor (kt) of approximately 2.0 for the welded samples. Consequently, the FSW process can be advantageous compared to conventional riveting for airframe applications.     

Predictive equations of the tensile properties based on alloy hardness and microstructure for an A356 gravity die cast cylinder head

One of the main problems in the design of complex Al–Si cast components is the wide variety of mechanical properties in different regions of the castings which is due to the wide range of solidification microstructures, related to the local solidification conditions. There are many papers available on the widely used A356/A357 Al–Si–Mg alloys, however, most experimental data on their tensile or fatigue properties are generally obtained from specimens cast separately or produced under controlled laboratory conditions, that are extremely different from those of industrially cast components. Moreover, most of these data often relate the mechanical properties to only one microstructural parameter, such as solidification defects or secondary dendrite arm spacing, and do not take their simultaneous effect into consideration. For all these reasons, the main problem, in the design phase, is the lack of knowledge of the true local mechanical properties in complex-shaped castings, which often means a conservative approach is necessary, with a consequent increase in thickness and therefore in weight. The aim of this research was to study a complex A356 gravity die cast cylinder head, in order to verify the range of variability of the main microstructural parameters and tensile properties, using specimens directly machined from the casting. The component was heat treated at the T6 condition, and the effect of the delay between quenching and aging on the alloy hardness was also evaluated. Simple experimental equations have been proposed, able to successfully predict the local tensile properties in the casting, when only the most important microstructural parameters and alloy hardness are known. These equations allow the designer to predict the local tensile behaviour without any tensile tests; moreover they can also link the post-processing results of the casting simulation software to the pre-processing phase of the structural ones, with an approach of co-engineered design.     

Effect of equal-channel angular extrusion on mechanical and wear properties of eutectic Al–12Si alloy

Mechanical and wear properties of severely deformed Al–12Si alloy by equal-channel angular extrusion/pressing (ECAE/P) were investigated. Multi-pass ECAE processing of the as-cast alloy substantially increased both its strength and ductility. The increase in the tensile and yield strength values after six ECAE passes were about 48% and 87%, respectively. The sample after six ECAE passes exhibited 10% elongation before rupture, which was about five times higher than that of the as-cast one. The improvement in both strength and ductility was mainly attributed to the changes of the shape, size and distribution of the eutectic silicon particles along with the breakage and refined of the large α-Al grains during multi-pass ECAE processing. However, the wear test results surprisingly showed that the ECAE process decreased the wear resistance of the alloy, although there was improvement in strength and ductility values. This was mainly attributed to the tribochemical reaction leading to oxidative wear with the abrasive effect in Al–Si alloys during sliding. The oxide layer played a dominant role in determining the wear resistance of the sample in both as-cast and ECAE-processed states, and it masked the effect of strengthening of alloy structure on the wear resistance.     

Influence of transverse load on the high cycle fatigue behaviour of low pressure cast AZ91 magnesium alloy

A new testing procedure, employing transverse load was adopted to investigate the high cycle fatigue behaviour of low pressure cast AZ91 magnesium alloy. The tests were conducted with an electro dynamic shaker system by employing specimens fabricated as per ASTM standard. S–N plot was generated from the test results and compared with that of gravity cast AZ91 alloy tested in identical ambience. The influence of transverse load on the fatigue behaviour of these alloys is discussed. As fatigue cracks were found to have initiated in pores in most of the tested samples, pores were assumed as initial cracks as per linear fracture mechanics and the critical stress intensity amplitude (K_cr) was estimated. Structure–fatigue property correlations are discussed using fractographs. Mean stress effect on the fatigue properties and effects of alloying constituents are also discussed.     

Microstructure and strength of pure Cu with large grains processed by equal channel angular pressing

The pure Cu rods with an initial grain size of 410 μm were treated by using equal channel angular pressing (ECAP). The deformed microstructure and mechanical properties of ECAPed Cu samples were investigated. Special attention was paid on the refinement of grain size and local micromechanics of ECAPed Cu samples. The original coarse grains were refined to 320 μm after 4 passes. The final grains were composed of dislocation cells with a size of 500 nm–3 μm after 5–8 passes. The yield strength reached a saturation value of 368 MPa after 5 passes. The maps of microhardness distribution illustrated the inhomogeneity of local mechanical properties. The dislocation subdivision was the main deformation mode to refine the grain size, while twin fragmentation was restrained by dislocation slips for the reason of large initial grain size. Furthermore, the strengthening of ECAPed Cu was discussed.     

A comparative study of laser-arc double-sided welding and double-sided arc welding of 6 mm 5A06 aluminium alloy

In order to study the interactions between the two heat sources in both laser-arc double-sided welding (LADSW) and double-sided arc welding (DSAW), some welding characteristics including weld configuration, energy efficiency, weld microstructure and mechanical properties of the both processes were contrastively investigated. The results show that the weld cross-section of LADSW within the proper welding parameter takes on the combination of typical weld profiles of gas tungsten arc welding and laser welding, while the DSAW takes on a quasi-symmetrical shape. The energy efficiency of LADSW is higher than DSAW, probably due to the higher heat transfer efficiency in laser welding and stronger effect of laser on the arc. The weld microstructures of the both processes characterized by scanning electron microscope mainly consist of α and β phase, whereas the grain size and second-phase particle size vary a great deal for the different heat input. The tensile strength of LADSW is 91.7% of base metal, compared with that of 82.3% of DSAW, and the elongation is also higher than DSAW. The fracture micromorphology of LADSW indicates a more typical dimple fracture than that of DSAW. It is considered that the better mechanical properties of LADSW are attributed to the finer grain size.     

Material flow and mechanical behaviour of dissimilar AA2024-T3 and AA7075-T6 aluminium alloys friction stir welds

The scope of this investigation is to evaluate the effect of joining parameters on the mechanical properties, microstructural features and material flow of dissimilar aluminium alloys (3 mm-thick AA2024-T3 and AA7075-T6 sheets) joints produced by friction stir welding. Mechanical performance has been investigated in terms of hardness and tensile testing. Material flow using the stop action technique has also been investigated in order to understand the main features of the mixing process. No onion ring formation has been observed; the boundary between both base materials at the stir zone is clearly delineated, i.e., no material mixing is observed. A non-stable rotational flow inside the threads has been identified due to the formation of a cavity on the rear of the pin. Microstructural observation has revealed the development of a recrystallised fine-grained stir zone, with two different grain sizes resulting from the two different base materials.     

Development of ultrafine grained high strength age hardenable Al 7075 alloy by cryorolling

High strength age hardenable Al 7XXX series alloys are difficult to process by many of the severe plastic deformation processes at room temperature. The Al 7075 alloy has been processed at cryogenic temperature and room temperature up to different rolling strains, in the present work, with the objective of developing a processing strategy to obtain ultrafine grained microstructure with enhanced mechanical properties in the alloy. It has been identified that the Al 7075 alloy samples can be successfully cryorolled to higher strains (up to 3.4) if the reduction per pass is less than 0.3 mm, however it was found to be difficult to deform the samples at room temperature. A cryorolling strain of 3.4 has been found to be desirable for producing the ultrafine grained Al 7075 alloys with the high angle grain boundaries. However, the subgrains are not recrystallized up to this strain in the case of room temperature rolled Al alloys. The strength and hardness of the cryorolled Al 7075 alloy samples are higher than that of the room temperature rolled samples as observed in the present work. The improved strength and hardness of cryorolled samples are due to the grain size effect and higher dislocation density. The reduction in dimple size of cryorolled Al 7075 alloy upon failure confirms the grain refinement and strain hardening mechanism operating in the heavily deformed samples.     

Mechanical properties of additive manufactured titanium (Ti–6Al–4V) blocks deposited by a solid-state laser and wire

In this paper, the mechanical properties and chemical composition of additive manufactured Ti–6Al–4V blocks are investigated and compared to plate material and aerospace specifications. Blocks (seven beads wide, seven layers high, 165 mm long) were deposited using a 3.5 kW Nd:YAG laser and Ti–6Al–4V wire. Two different sets of process parameters are used and three different conditions (as-built, 600 °C/4 h, 1200 °C/2 h) of the deposit are investigated. The particular impurity levels of the blocks are considerably below those tolerated according to aerospace material specifications (AMS 4911L). Static tensile samples are extracted from the blocks in the deposition direction and punch samples are extracted in the building direction. The experiments show that as-deposited Ti–6Al–4V can achieve strength and ductility properties that fulfill aerospace specifications of the wrought Ti–6Al–4V material (AMS 4928). The 600 °C/4 h heat treatment leads to a significantly higher strength in the deposition direction, but can also decrease ductility. The 1200 °C/2 h treatment tends to decrease the alloy’s strength.     

Effect of γ precipitates on the cavitation behavior of wrought AZ31 magnesium alloy

In the present work, the influence of γ eutectic phase on the cavitation behavior of wrought AZ31 magnesium alloy has been studied through applying a set of low strain rate hot tensile tests. The tensile tests were executed in two temperature range of 300–425 °C and 450–500 °C; i.e. somewhat below and higher eutectic melting temperature of γ precipitates (∼437 °C). The hot compression characteristics of the experimental alloy were also considered to assist explaining the related deformation mechanisms. The results indicated that a large amount of cavities originates from the γ second phases, specially located on grain boundaries. A sharp transition was realized from higher (>3%) to lower cavity area fraction (<0.02%) between 450 °C and 500 °C. The latter was attributed to the effect of γ liquid phase on stress relaxation through accommodating the grain boundary sliding phenomena. In addition, the current work explores the room temperature mechanical properties of tensile deformed specimens using shear punch testing method.     

Metallurgical parameters controlling the microstructure and hardness of Al–Si–Cu–Mg base alloys

Castings were prepared from both experimental and industrial 319 alloy melts containing 0–0.6 wt% Mg. Test bars were cast in two different cooling rate molds, a star-like permanent mold and an L-shaped permanent mold, with DASs of 24 μm and 50 μm, respectively. The bars were tempered at 180 °C (T6 treatment) and 220 °C (T7 treatment) for 2–48 h. The results showed that Mg content, aging conditions, and cooling rate have a significant effect on the microstructure of both experimental and industrial alloys and, consequently, on the hardness. The addition of Mg resulted in the precipitation of the β-Mg₂Si, Q-Al₅Mg₈Cu₂Si₆, π-Al₈Mg₃FeSi₆ and of the block-like θ-Al₂Cu phases. The Mg and Cu, as well as the higher cooling rates improved the hardness values, especially in the T6 heat-treated condition, whereas the addition of Sr decreased these values.     

Effects of Sn addition on as-cast microstructure, mechanical properties and casting fluidity of ZA84 magnesium alloy

The effects of Sn addition on the as-cast microstructure, mechanical properties and casting fluidity of the ZA84 magnesium alloy are investigated. The results indicate that adding 0.5–2.0 wt.%Sn to the ZA84 alloy not only can result in the formation of Mg₂Sn phase but also can refine the Mg₃₂(Al, Zn)₄₉ phase and suppress the formation of Mg₃₂(Al, Zn)₄₉ phase, and with the increase of Sn amount from 0.5 wt.% to 2.0 wt.%, the morphology of Mg₃₂(Al, Zn)₄₉ phase gradually changes from coarse continuous and/or quasi-continuous net to relatively fine quasi-continuous and/or disconnected shapes. In addition, adding 0.5–2.0 wt.%Sn to the ZA84 alloy can improve the tensile and creep properties, and casting fluidity of the alloy. Among the Sn-containing ZA84 alloys, the ZA84 alloy added 1.0 wt.%Sn exhibits the best ultimate tensile strength, elongation and casting fluidity while the ZA84 alloy added 2.0 wt.%Sn has the best yield strength and creep properties.     

Microstructural development during transient directional solidification of hypermonotectic Al–Bi alloys

Directional unsteady-state solidification experiments were performed with hypermonotectic Al–5.0 wt%Bi and 7.0 wt%Bi alloys. Thermal parameters such as the growth rate (v) and the thermal gradient (G) were experimentally determined by cooling curves recorded along the casting length. The predominant Bi-rich phase was characterized by droplets embedded in the aluminum matrix. Both the interphase spacing (λ) and the Bi-rich particles diameter (d) were measured along the casting length. These microstructural features were correlated to the solidification thermal parameters: growth rate, cooling rate and thermal gradient. An experimental law expressing λ as a function of both G and v was found to better represent the growth of hypermonotectic Al–Bi alloys. Moreover, it was found that the interphase spacing decreases with increasing alloy bismuth content.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of friction spot welded 6061-T4 aluminum alloy

Friction spot welding (FSpW) is a relatively new solid state joining technology developed by GKSS. In the present study, FSpW was applied to join the 6061-T4 aluminum alloy sheet with 2 mm thickness. The microstructure of the weld can be classified into four regions, which are stir zone (SZ), thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), heat affected zone (HAZ) and the base material (BM), respectively. Meanwhile, defects such as bonding ligament, hook and voids are found in the weld, which are associated to the material flow. The hardness profile of the weld exhibits a W-shaped appearance and the minimum hardness is measured at the boundary of TMAZ and SZ. Both the tensile/shear strength and cross-tension strength reach the maximum of 7117.0 N and 4555.4 N at the welding condition of the rotational speed of 1500 rpm and duration time of 4 s. Compared to cross-tension strength, the tensile/shear strength were stable with the variation of processing parameters. Three different fracture modes are observed under tensile/shear loading, which are plug type fracture, shear fracture and plug-shear fracture. There are also there different fracture modes under cross-tension loading, which are plug type fracture (on the upper sheet), nugget debonding and plug type fracture (on the lower sheet).     

Microstructural features and mechanical properties of AM60 and AZ31 friction stir spot welds

The microstructural features and mechanical properties of AM60 and AZ31 friction stir spot welds are investigated in joints made using different tool designs (threaded and three-flat/threaded tools) and dwell time settings. Since the hook regions are curved inwards towards the keyhole periphery in AM60 friction stir spot welds made using threaded and three-flat/threaded tools and different dwell time settings, the distance from the tip of the hook region to the keyhole periphery mainly determines their failure load properties. In contrast, the hook regions are curved outwards from the axis of the rotating tool in AZ31 friction stir spot welds and their failure strength properties are determined by the bonded width, the distance from the tip of the hook region to the sheet intersection, the depth of tool shoulder penetration into the surface of the upper sheet and the distance from the tip of the hook region to the top of the welded joint.     

Effects of trace Er addition on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–Zn–Zr alloy

The effects of trace Er addition on the microstructure in Mg–9Zn–0.6Zr alloy during casting, homogenization, pre-heating, and hot extrusion processes were examined. The mechanical properties of alloys with and without Er were compared. The results showed that Er exhibited a lower solubility in solid magnesium and formed thermally stable Er- and Zn-bearing compounds. The Er-bearing alloy exhibited a considerably improved deformability, as well as a fine and uniform microstructure. Moreover, dynamic precipitation of fine MgZn₂ particles with a modified spherical morphology occurred during hot extrusion, resulting in a tensile yield strength of 313 MPa and a high elongation to failure value of 22%. Further aging of the Er-bearing alloy led to an increment of another 30 MPa in yield strength. In addition, Er markedly increased the thermal stability of the alloy structure.     

Improvement of weld temperature distribution and mechanical properties of 7050 aluminum alloy butt joints by submerged friction stir welding

Submerged friction stir welding (FSW) in cold and hot water, as well as in air, was carried out for 7050 aluminum alloys. The weld thermal cycles and transverse distributions of the microhardness of the weld joints were measured, and their tensile properties were tested. The fracture surfaces of the tensile specimens were observed, and the microstructures at the fracture region were investigated. The results show that the peak temperature during welding in air was up to 380 °C, while the peak temperatures during welding in cold and hot water were about 220 and 300 °C, respectively. The temperature at the retreated side of the joint was higher than that at the advanced side for all weld joints. The distributions of microhardness exhibited a typical “W” shape. The width of the low hardness zone varied with the weld ambient conditions. The minimum hardness zone was located at the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the weld joints. Better tensile properties were achieved for joint welded in hot water, and the strength ratio of the weld joint to the base metal was up to 92%. The tensile fracture position was located at the low hardness zone of the weld joints. The fracture surfaces exhibited a mixture of dimples and quasi-cleavage planes for the joints welded in cold and hot water, and only dimples for the joint welded in air.