Design of transmission blazed binary gratings for optical limiting with the form-birefringence theory

The structure of transmission blazed binary gratings for optical limiting is designed with the form-birefringence theory. This kind of grating has subwavelength features, can imitate the transmission blazed grating effectively, and has higher efficiencies than a transmission blazed grating with a subwavelength structure. The diffraction efficiencies are calculated and analyzed. For the normal incident light with 10.6 microm wavelength, the transmissivities for the designed grating at 0 degrees deviation angle for TE and TM polarizations are 0.05% and 5.09%, respectively, which are basically identical to the results of the finite-difference time-domain method. The diffraction efficiencies of the first transmitted order for TE and TM polarizations are 93.95% and 83.88%, respectively.     

改善MEMS闪耀光栅衍射效率的研究

研究了在硅材料上利用MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical System)的各向异性腐蚀技术制备 闪耀光栅。采用氧化削尖工艺去除光栅制备过程中掩膜在闪耀面上留下的平台,得到一个连续的闪耀面;同时对闪耀面进行表面抛光,改善闪耀面的粗糙度,减小对入射光的散射。理论分析和实验测试证明,该工艺方法能够将MEMS闪耀光栅的衍射效率提高10%左右。     

Deterministic design of binary phase-only blazed grating with subwavelength features under limitation on spatial resolution of fabrication technique

We propose a deterministic design method of a blazed grating consisting of a binary grating with subwavelength structures for a multilevel phase modulation. The feasible shapes of binary subwavelength microstructures are restricted to a few kinds of surface profiles by constraints in an actual fabrication technique. The relationship between the feasible shapes of binary subwavelength microstructures and their phase modulations can be calculated by an electromagnetic analysis and tabulated. Using the relationship, a deterministic design of a binary grating with subwavelength structures is simply realized. We have designed the binary blazed grating with subwavelength structures and investigated its performance. Its diffraction efficiency is in good agreement with that by a conventional statistical design method.     

Diffraction efficiency of 200-nm-period critical-angle transmission gratings in the soft x-ray and extreme ultraviolet wavelength bands

We report on measurements of the diffraction efficiency of 200-nm-period freestanding blazed transmission gratings for wavelengths in the 0.96 to 19.4 nm range. These critical-angle transmission (CAT) gratings achieve highly efficient blazing over a broad band via total external reflection off the sidewalls of smooth, tens of nanometer thin ultrahigh aspect-ratio silicon grating bars and thus combine the advantages of blazed x-ray reflection gratings with those of more conventional x-ray transmission gratings. Prototype gratings with maximum depths of 3.2 and 6 μm were investigated at two different blaze angles. In these initial CAT gratings the grating bars are monolithically connected to a cross support mesh that only leaves less than half of the grating area unobstructed. Because of our initial fabrication approach, the support mesh bars feature a strongly trapezoidal cross section that leads to varying CAT grating depths and partial absorption of diffracted orders. While theory predicts broadband absolute diffraction efficiencies as high as 60% for ideal CAT gratings without a support mesh, experimental results show efficiencies in the range of ～50-100% of theoretical predictions when taking the effects of the support mesh into account. Future minimization of the support mesh therefore promises broadband CAT grating absolute diffraction efficiencies of 50% or higher.     

Binary blazed grating based on autostereoscopic display mechanism

The diffractive optical element blazed grating is proposed as the beam splitter for autostereoscopic displays in this study. With Lithographie Galvanoformung Abformung and inductively coupled plasma reactive-ion etching, a four-level blazed grating structure is produced. Moreover, highly translucent polydimethylsiloxane is transformed into symmetrical four-level blazed grating films. The experimental results show that the film can successfully transmit the left and the right images to the accurate positions, and the diffraction efficiency is 70.4% and the contrast ratio is above 80%, presenting the original stereoscopic image without it being affected by brightness and crosstalk. In the experiment of stereoscopic imaging, both the left and the right images could be clearly acquired, which proves the feasibility of blazed gratings as practical for the beam splitter of autostereoscopic displays.     

Mo/Si multilayer-coated ruled blazed gratings for the soft-x-ray region

Two Mo/Si multilayer-coated blazed gratings have been fabricated for operation at soft-x-ray wavelengths above the Si L edge, λ ≥ 12.4 nm, at (near) normal incidence. The sawtooth profile of the grating structure was mechanically ruled into a 200-nm Au film that was deposited onto a plane glass substrate. To smooth the rough Au surface and to prevent interdiffusion of the Au film with the upper Mo/Si multilayer, a carbon film was evaporated onto the Au grating surface of one of the gratings before the deposition of the multilayer coating. We matched the multilayer grating, working on blaze in the third diffraction order, in which an absolute diffraction efficiency of 3.4% at a wavelength of 14 nm was measured, whereas only 1.1% was achieved for a similar grating (without a carbon interlayer). These efficiencies are higher than those obtained for other ruled blazed gratings reported in the literature. As a result of the multilayer and grating periodicity, the wavelength of diffraction can be tuned bya rotation of the grating, which is important for application in a soft-x-ray monochromator.     

Characterization of 1D diffractive optical elements by phase inversion

Abstract

We consider the feature dimensions of selected 1D diffractive optical elements (DOE) such that the Fourier transform based Gerchberg-Saxton (GS) iterative scalar phase retrieval algorithm, as calibrated by the results of vector coupled-wave theory, may be used for phase reconstruction. We consider examples only of continuous surface relief and binary (two level, not multi-level) phase-only DOE. Experimental phase distribution for rectangular and blazed gratings with ～ 5λ period agree within experimental limits with scalar theory, and, for the rectangular grating, were shown to agree also with the vector theory. Phase distributions are considered for a continuously varying linear blazed grating with 10λ periodicity, its sampled binary equivalent with minimum feature sizes of 0.1λ and for continuous linear blazed gratings with period varied from ～ 16λ to ～ 2λ. The vector calculations show an average linear dependence of the phase on grating period, but the vector curves are displaced to lower values from the scalar results by an increasing amount as the grating period is reduced. Grating performance is more influenced by the size of the grating period than the subwavelength size of the features in a binary representation. Reasonable equivalence is found in the prediction of correct phase distributions between scalar and vector theory for grating periods > ～ 5λ.     

Gray-scale masks for diffractive-optics fabrication: I. Commercial slide imagers

Fabrication of diffractive optics with binary masks requires multiple photolithographic processes to produce high-efficiency elements. Alignment or etching errors at any stage of fabrication decrease the efficiency of the element. We developed an easily accessible procedure that reduces fabrication complexity and costs by using a single gray-scale mask. The gray-scale patterns are generated by commercial slide imagers and are then photoreduced onto low-contrast film plates. Multiple-level or continuous relief structures (kinoforms) may be constructed by use of the photoreduced gray-scale patterns as lithographic masks. Diffractive-optic lenses and blazed gratings were fabricated in photoresist with this procedure. First-order diffraction efficiencies as high as 85% were measured for the blazed gratings. The advantages and the limitations of this technique are discussed.     

High-efficiency MoRu-Be multilayer-coated gratings operating near normal incidence in the 11.1-12.0-nm wavelength range

MoRu-Be multilayer coatings were applied to two diffraction gratings for the purpose of enhancing their normal-incidence efficiency in the 11.1-12.0-nm wavelength range. The grating substrates were replicas of a holographic master grating that had a blazed groove profile with 2400 grooves/mm and a 2-m radius of curvature. The relatively low average microroughness (0.8 nm) of the grating surfaces contributed to the relatively high groove efficiency of the grating substrates and the reflectance of the MoRu-Be multilayer coatings. The peak efficiency, measured with synchrotron radiation, was 10.4% in the second diffraction order at a wavelength of 11.37 nm.     

Efficient coupling into polymer waveguides by gratings

Investigations of highly efficient grating couplers for polymer slab and strip waveguides fabricated by electron-beam lithography are reported. A maximum input efficiency of 67% is achieved. The electron-beam direct-writing technique allows one to replicate the original gratings into polymer substrates by embossing. An all-polymeric optical chip with efficient grating couplers is demonstrated. Waveguide grating couplers with blazed profile and variable grating depth are investigated. Thus, the intensity distribution of the outcoupled light is matched to a Gaussian-like profile. A focusing blazed grating that couples the light with an efficiency of 42% into a polymer strip waveguide is reported. A curvature correction of the grating lines allows one to improve the focusing properties.     

Submicrometer gratings for solar energy applications

Diffractive optical structures for increasing the efficiency of crystalline silicon solar cells are discussed. As a consequence of the indirect band gap, light absorption becomes very ineffective near the band edge. This can be remedied by use of optimized diffraction gratings that lead to light trapping. We present blazed gratings that increase the optically effective cell thickness by approximately a factor of 5. In addition we present a wideband antireflection structure for glass that consists of a diffraction grating with a dielectric overcoat, which leads to an average reflection of less than 0.6% in the wavelength range between 300 and 2100 nm.     

Laminar and blazed type holographic gratings for a versatile soft x-ray spectrograph attached to an electron microscope and their evaluation in the 50-200 eV range

Laminar and blazed type holographic varied-line-spacing spherical gratings for use in a versatile soft x-ray flat-field spectrograph attached to an electron microscope are designed, fabricated, and evaluated. The absolute diffraction efficiencies of laminar (or blazed) master and replica gratings at 86.00° incidence evaluated by synchrotron radiation show over 5% (or 8%) in the 50-200 eV range with the maxima of 22% (or 26%-27%). Also the resolving power evaluated by a laser produced plasma source is in excess of 700 at the energy near the K emission spectrum of lithium (~55 eV) for all gratings. Moreover, the K emission spectrum of metallic Li with high spectral resolution is successfully observed with the spectrograph attached to a transmission electron microscope.     

Design of a Binary Grating with Subwavelength Features that Acts as a Polarizing Beam Splitter

A binary diffractive optical element, acting as a polarizing beam splitter, is proposed and analyzed. It behaves like a transmissive blazed grating, working on the first or the second diffraction order, depending on the polarization state of the incident radiation. The grating-phase profile required for both polarization states is obtained by means of suitably sized subwavelength groups etched in an isotropic dielectric medium. A rigorous electromagnetic analysis of the grating is presented, and numerical results concerning its performances in terms of diffraction efficiency as well as frequency and angular bandwidths are provided.     

Diffraction based phase compensation method for phase-only liquid crystal on silicon devices in operation

A method to measure the optical response across the surface of a phase-only liquid crystal on silicon device using binary phase gratings is described together with a procedure to compensate its spatial optical phase variation. As a result, the residual power between zero and the minima of the first diffraction order for a binary grating can be reduced by more than 10 dB, from -15.98 dB to -26.29 dB. This phase compensation method is also shown to be useful in nonbinary cases. A reduction in the worst crosstalk by 5.32 dB can be achieved when quantized blazed gratings are used.     

Convex grating types for concentric imaging spectrometers

The properties of convex gratings fabricated by electron-beam lithography are investigated. Three grating types are shown. The first is a single-panel, true blazed grating in which the blaze angle stays constant relative to the local surface normal. This grating provides high peak efficiencies of approximately 88% in the first order and 85% in the second order. The second grating has two concentric panels, with each panel blazed at a different angle. This type permits flexibility in matching the grating response to a desired form. The third type has a groove shape that departs from the sawtooth blazed profile to increase the second-order bandwidth. All these types are difficult or impossible to produce with conventional techniques. The gratings compare favorably with conventional (holographic and ruled) types in terms of efficiency and scatter. Simple scalar models are shown to predict the wavelength response accurately. These gratings allow the optical designer to realize fully the considerable advantages of concentric spectrometer forms.     

Extreme-ultraviolet efficiency measurements of freestanding transmission gratings

We report new, near-normal-incidence, transmission grating efficiency results at selected extreme-ultraviolet wavelengths between 4.5 and 30.5 nm for two transmission gratings, one with a period of 200 nm and the other with a period of 400 nm. These gratings consist of opaque gold bars separated by open spaces that have been produced by photolithography techniques commonly used to produce electronic components. The gold bars and the open spaces are nominally of the same width. Both gratings have a thickness of 470 nm. The transmission efficiency at the central, first, and, when possible, second order of diffraction was measured. In addition, guided-wave phenomena at nonnormal angles of incidence, as well as transmission differences depending on which side of the grating was illuminated, were investigated. The observed guided-wave effects allow one to selectively enhance the transmission of the grating at desired wavelengths, as is realized with a blazed reflection grating.     

On the fringing-field effect in liquid-crystal beam-steering devices

A detailed simulation of the fringing-field effect in liquid-crystal (LC)-based blazed-grating structures has been carried out. These studies are aimed at clarifying the relationship between the width of the fringing-field-broadened phase profile of the blazed grating and the LC cell thickness. This fringing-field broadening of the blazed grating's phase profile is shown to affect mostly the 2pi phase-step zone (fly-back zone) of the blazed grating. The results of the simulations carried out on the blazed-grating structure indicate two main effects of the fringing field: (1) reduction in the attainable diffraction efficiency and (2) limitation of the maximum deflection angle of the device. Both effects are shown to be directly linked to the broadening of the fly-back zone, which is shown to be proportional to the LC cell thickness.     

Liquid-crystal blazed grating with azimuthally distributed liquid-crystal directors

We propose a novel formation method of arbitrary phase profiles of circular light by controlling azimuthal angles of liquid-crystal directors; its principle is described theoretically. A new liquid-crystal blazed grating is demonstrated by use of the proposed method. It is revealed that the first-order diffraction efficiency reaches the maximum value (theoretically 100%, experimentally approximately 90%) at an optimum applied voltage when the phase difference between the extraordinary and ordinary rays agrees with one-half the wavelength. Furthermore, the polarization states of the diffracted light beams are analyzed by Stokes parameter measurements, and unique polarization-splitting properties are revealed.     

光刻胶灰化用于全息离子束刻蚀光栅制作

针对全息离子束刻蚀衍射光栅制作中,光刻胶光栅浮雕图形的制作是至关重要和困难的,引入O2反应离子刻蚀对光刻胶光栅进行灰化处理,给出光刻胶灰化技术在全息离子束刻蚀衍射光栅制作闪耀光栅、浅槽矩形位相光栅、自支撑透射光栅中的具体应用。实验结果表明,这一新工艺的突出优点是降低了苛刻的全息曝光、显影要求,使得光栅线条光滑、线空比和槽深可控。     

Efficient nonlinear amplitude recording of holographic gratings in electrolytically colored potassium bromide crystals

The nonlinear amplitude recording of volume holographic gratings is theoretically and experimentally studied in electrolytically colored potassium bromide crystals. A maximum diffraction efficiency of 10.8% is obtained, which substantially exceeds the 3.7% maximum diffraction efficiency for linear recording.