ACO–EEOLSR: enhanced energy model based link stability routing protocol in mobile ad hoc networks

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) has abundant mobile nodes that are free to communicate independently in many locations. Many existing energy models address the inadequacy of resources based on Ad hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector and Optimized Link State Protocol (OLSP) routing protocols for MANET along with various parameters. The architecture of energy-efficient routing mechanisms is a challenging problem in a MANET. In this work, a novel energy-aware routing model is introduced for MANET comprising an ant colony optimization (ACO) enhanced approach to energy-efficient-optimized link state routing (named ACO–EEOLSR). Initially, the route discovery is progressed by means of neighbor estimation and also with the authentication of link stability. Parameters such as energy, distance, and hop count are employed as willingness nodes, where both the energy and distance are entrenched through the OLSP. Consequently, the hop count is applied via the ACO system that is beneficial for link stability. After the acceptance of an acknowledgement, the hop count is authorized for further performance analysis. This approach increases the Quality of Service and also uses less energy compared to other energy models. The accomplished simulation upshot depicts that the ACO–EEOLSR outperforms the EEOLSR scheme with respect to the performance metrics of energy consumption, packet delivery ratio, total remaining time, average network lifetime, and a variance of energy.     

Multilayer flavoured dynamic source routing in mobile ad-hoc networks

Dynamic source routing (DSR, introduced in 1996) is one of the most frequently used routing protocols for mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs). Numerous MANET protocols were created based on DSR's algorithm. In addition to inheriting the overall performance specifications of DSR, these MANET protocols are designed to perform optimised for specific functionality. To name a few, these functionalities include: hierarchical routing, security-aware routing and multipath routing. Such flavoured DSR schemes (X-DSR) are often compared against the original DSR protocol through simulation results. The purpose of this survey is to first introduce DSR in detail, discuss most of the DSR flavours, point out their specific features, and to present a complete survey of the analyses given in the current literature against the original DSR protocol. Following this in-depth discussion, we introduce an X-DSR-aware management architecture, which utilises a multilayer scheme that imports parameters from different layers (network, data-link and physical) and performs current network condition matching compared to the closest pre-defined network condition groups. The output of such a match is the selection of the most optimal routing protocol, which satisfies most of the criteria of the predefined condition group.     

一种新型水下移动自组织网路由算法

目前针对移动自组织网提出的路由协议普遍存在路由发现和路由维护效率低的问题,在研究按需距离矢量(AODV)路由算法的基础上,提出了一种水下多路径选择按需距离向量算法(MAODV)。该算法采用多节点路由切换机制,在一条链路失效后不必重新启动路由发现过程,而选用备用节点构成新的链路,继续进行数据包的传输,大大节省了信息资源和带宽。计算机统计仿真表明,该MAODV方法的性能在端到端通信的平均时间延迟和数据包接收率上均优于(AODV)。有效地解决了路由协议中路由发现和路由维护效率低的问题。     

LOA-RPL: Novel Energy-Efficient Routing Protocol for the Internet of Things Using Lion Optimization Algorithm to Maximize Network Lifetime

Energy conservation is a significant task in the Internet of Things (IoT) because IoT involves highly resource-constrained devices. Clustering is an effective technique for saving energy by reducing duplicate data. In a clustering protocol, the selection of a cluster head (CH) plays a key role in prolonging the lifetime of a network. However, most cluster-based protocols, including routing protocols for low-power and lossy networks (RPLs), have used fuzzy logic and probabilistic approaches to select the CH node. Consequently, early battery depletion is produced near the sink. To overcome this issue, a lion optimization algorithm (LOA) for selecting CH in RPL is proposed in this study. LOA-RPL comprises three processes: cluster formation, CH selection, and route establishment. A cluster is formed using the Euclidean distance. CH selection is performed using LOA. Route establishment is implemented using residual energy information. An extensive simulation is conducted in the network simulator ns-3 on various parameters, such as network lifetime, power consumption, packet delivery ratio (PDR), and throughput. The performance of LOA-RPL is also compared with those of RPL, fuzzy rule-based energy-efficient clustering and immune-inspired routing (FEEC-IIR), and the routing scheme for IoT that uses shuffled frog-leaping optimization algorithm (RISA-RPL). The performance evaluation metrics used in this study are network lifetime, power consumption, PDR, and throughput. The proposed LOA-RPL increases network lifetime by 20% and PDR by 5%–10% compared with RPL, FEEC-IIR, and RISA-RPL. LOA-RPL is also highly energy-efficient compared with other similar routing protocols.     

Preventing the impact of selfish behavior under MANET using Neighbor Credit Value based AODV routing algorithm

Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) nodes exchange information using the multi-hop wireless communications without the need for any pre-existing infrastructure. Routing protocols of MANET are designed with an assumption that the nodes will cooperate in routing process. To achieve high throughput and reliable communication, the nodes are expected to cooperate with each other. Routing protocol plays a crucial role in an effective communication between nodes and operates on the assumption that the nodes are fully cooperative. Due to the open structure and limited battery-based energy in MANET, some nodes may not cooperate correctly or behave maliciously and such kind of misbehavior impacts the fairness, reliability and efficiency in MANET. Previous work addressed the ways to overcome these kinds of node misbehaviors and attacks. Most of the existing works need time to analyse the neighbor traffic and decide whether a neighbor is behaving maliciously or not. Further, the existing credit-based detection mechanisms may mark a genuine idle node as a malicious node. This work addresses a simple Neighbor Credit Value based AODV (NCV-AODV) routing algorithm for the detection of selfish behavior which avoids such false detection. The proposed idea is implemented in Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol and an extensive analysis on the performance of the proposed detection mechanism against the selfish behavior of some MANET nodes are conducted.     

Co-simulation of wireless networked control systems over mobile ad hoc network using SIMULINK and OPNET

Wireless networked control systems (WNCS) over mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a new area of research and has many potential applications, for instance, military or rescue missions, exploring hazardous environments, and so on. For performance evaluation, researchers mostly rely on computer simulations as WNCS experiments are expensive to execute. It will generate a significant benefit to conduct performance analysis of WNCS over MANET using co-simulation that utilises SIMULINK and OPtimised Network Engineering Tool (OPNET) to simulate plant/controller behaviour and the MANET, respectively. Previous conference papers by the authors reported the initial SIMULINK-OPNET co-simulation for only one network size. Here the authors present an extention of their previous work, and presents the SIMULINK-OPNET co-simulation, methodology and comprehensive simulation results that have not been reported previously. It also considers the impact of five network sizes with stationary and mobile nodes. The proposed SIMULINK-OPNET co-simulation is applied to WNCS over MANET using a realistic wireless communication model. It investigates the impact of network data rates, node mobility, the packet delay, packet drop on the system stability and performance.     

Mathematical Model Validation of Search Protocols in MP2P Networks

Broadcasting is a basic technique in Mobile ad-hoc network (MANET), and it refers to sending a packet from one node to every other node within the transmission range. Flooding is a type of broadcast where the received packet is retransmitted once by every node. The naive flooding technique, floods the network with query messages, while the random walk technique operates by contacting the subsets of every node’s neighbors at each step, thereby restricting the search space. One of the key challenges in an ad-hoc network is the resource or content discovery problem which is about locating the queried resource. Many earlier works have mainly focused on the simulation-based analysis of flooding, and its variants under a wired network. Although, there have been some empirical studies in peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, the analytical results are still lacking, especially in the context of P2P systems running over MANET. In this paper, we describe how P2P resource discovery protocols perform badly over MANETs. To address the limitations, we propose a new protocol named ABRW (Address Broadcast Random Walk), which is a lightweight search approach, designed considering the underlay topology aimed to better suit the unstructured architecture. We provide the mathematical model, measuring the performance of our proposed search scheme with different widely popular benchmarked search techniques. Further, we also derive three relevant search performance metrics, i.e., mean no. of steps needed to find a resource, the probability of finding a resource, and the mean no. of message overhead. We validated the analytical expressions through simulations. The simulation results closely matched with our analytical model, justifying our findings. Our proposed search algorithm under such highly dynamic self-evolving networks performed better, as it reduced the search latency, decreased the overall message overhead, and still equally had a good success rate.     

Sea trials of an underwater, ad hoc, acoustic network with stationary assets

The diverse roles of deployable underwater assets have increased the need for ad hoc networking capability. This capability is defined as the ability to form acoustic communication links by deploying assets in a non-deterministic manner, without depending on a priori route and positioning information. Each asset represents a node in the network, and can act as a data source, sink or router, and initiates, stores or relays data, respectively. Data packets may be hopped over a few nodes before arriving at the designated destination. This ad hoc network consists of two main layers: the medium access control (MAC) layer to resolve node contention, and the ad hoc routing layer to manage routing information. In the MAC layer, both random access and timedivision protocols are applied. The protocol in the routing layer is responsible for route setup and route maintenance. This concept of multiple-hop, ad hoc networking was implemented during sea trials conducted in Portland Harbour, UK, involving up to six nodes. The trial was designed with the aim of gaining application experience in ad hoc network deployment and in assessing the performance of the protocols in a real operating environment. The emphasis was on modem integration, and the stability and reliability of packet transport. The trial results and their subsequent analysis demonstrated the robustness of the network in performing ad hoc routing and resolving node contention in a realistic and acoustically challenging environment.     

Genetic based optimization for multicast routing algorithm for MANET

Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is established for a limited period, for special extemporaneous services related to mobile applications. This ad hoc network is set up for a limited period, in environments that change with the application. While in Internet the TCP/IP protocol suite supports a wide range of application, in MANETs protocols are tuned to specific customer/application. Multicasting is emerging as a popular communication format where the same packet is sent to multiple nodes in a network. Routing in multicasting involves maintaining routes and finding new node locations in a group and is NP-complete due to the dynamic nature of the network. In this paper, a Hybrid Genetic Based Optimization for Multicast Routing algorithm is proposed. The proposed algorithm uses the best features of Genetic Algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO) to improve the solution. Simulations were conducted by varying number of mobile nodes and results compared with Multicast AODV (MAODV) protocol, PSO based and GA based solution. The proposed optimization improves jitter, end to end delay and Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) with faster convergence.     

Traffic Engineering in Dynamic Hybrid Segment Routing Networks

The emergence of Segment Routing (SR) provides a novel routing paradigm that uses a routing technique called source packet routing. In SR architecture, the paths that the packets choose to route on are indicated at the ingress router. Compared with shortest-path-based routing in traditional distributed routing protocols, SR can realize a flexible routing by implementing an arbitrary flow splitting at the ingress router. Despite the advantages of SR, it may be difficult to update the existing IP network to a full SR deployed network, for economical and technical reasons. Updating partial of the traditional IP network to the SR network, thus forming a hybrid SR network, is a preferable choice. For the traffic is dynamically changing in a daily time, in this paper, we propose a Weight Adjustment algorithm WASAR to optimize routing in a dynamic hybrid SR network. WASAR algorithm can be divided into three steps: firstly, representative Traffic Matrices (TMs) and the expected TM are obtained from the historical TMs through ultra-scalable spectral clustering algorithm. Secondly, given the network topology, the initial network weight setting and the expected TM, we can realize the link weight optimization and SR node deployment optimization through a Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) algorithm. Thirdly, we optimize the flow splitting ratios of SR nodes in a centralized online manner under dynamic traffic demands, in order to improve the network performance. In the evaluation, we exploit historical TMs to test the performance of the obtained routing configuration in WASAR. The extensive experimental results validate that our proposed WASAR algorithm has superior performance in reducing Maximum Link Utilization (MLU) under the dynamic traffic.     

Flooding-limited for multi-constrained quality-of-service routing protocol in mobile ad hoc networks

Multi-constrained quality-of-service (QoS) routing is used to find routes in a network to satisfy multiple independent QoS constraints. This problem is considered to be NP-complete, and most existing QoS routing algorithms are based on maintaining a global network state at every node. A multi-constrained, flooding-limited, QoS routing method to deal with limited available resources and minimum computation in a dynamic environment is proposed. The solution is based on decomposition of a routing area and a restriction in the exchange of routing information. It reduces the size of the control messages, restricts the amount of routing information, minimises the overhead from the flooding of control traffic and decreases the complexity of path selection. It is also proved that the flooding-limited-path heuristic can achieve very high performance by maintaining entries in each node, which indicates that the performance of the limited-path heuristic is not sensitive to the number of constraints. Simulation results show that this protocol provides better performance than other protocols, especially with regards to end-to-end delay, throughput and packet loss.     

Enhanced Energy Efficient with a Trust Aware in MANET for Real-Time Applications

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are subjected to attack detection for transmitting and creating new messages or existing message modifications. The attacker on another node evaluates the forging activity in the message directly or indirectly. Every node sends short packets in a MANET environment with its identifier, location on the map, and time through beacons. The attackers on the network broadcast the warning message using faked coordinates, providing the appearance of a network collision. Similarly, MANET degrades the channel utilization performance. Performance highly affects network performance through security algorithms. This paper developed a trust management technique called Enhanced Beacon Trust Management with Hybrid Optimization (EBTM-Hyopt) for efficient cluster head selection and malicious node detection. It tries to build trust among connected nodes and may improve security by requiring every participating node to develop and distribute genuine, accurate, and trustworthy material across the network. Specifically, optimized cluster head election is done periodically to reduce and balance the energy consumption to improve the lifetime network. The cluster head election optimization is based on hybridizing Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Gravitational Search Optimization Algorithm (GSOA) concepts to enable and ensure reliable routing. Simulation results show that the proposed EBTM-HYOPT outperforms the state-of-the-art trust model in terms of 297.99 kbps of throughput, 46.34% of PDR, 13% of energy consumption, 165.6 kbps of packet loss, 67.49% of end-to-end delay, and 16.34% of packet length.     

Energy Efficient Ambience Awake Routing with OpenFlow Approach

A major problem in networking has always been energy consumption. Battery life is one parameter which could help improve Energy Efficiency. Existing research on wireless networking stresses on reducing signaling messages or time required for data transfer for addressing energy consumption issues. Routing or Forwarding packets in a network between the network elements like routers, switches, wireless access points, etc., is complex in conventional networks. With the advent of Software Defined Networking (SDN) for 5G network architectures, the distributed networking has embarked onto centralized networking, wherein the SDN Controller is responsible for decision making. The controller pushes its decision onto the network elements with the help of a control plane protocol termed OpenFlow. Decentralized networks have been largely in use because of their ease in physical and logically setting the administrative hierarchies. The centralized controller deals with the policy funding and the protocols used for routing procedures are designated by the decentralized controller. Ambience Awake is a location centered routing protocol deployed in the 5G network architecture with OpenFlow model. The Ambience Awake mechanism relies on the power consumption of the network elements during the packet transmission for unicast and multicast scenarios. The signalling load and the routing overhead witnessed an improvement of 30% during the routing procedure. The proposed routing mechanism run on the top of the decentralized SDN controller proves to be 19.59% more efficient than the existing routing solutions.     

Mobile IP handoffs among multiple internet gateways in mobile ad hoc networks

In a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) with multiple Internet gateways, efficient management of mobile IP functionality supporting seamless data services is a major challenge. The inadequacy of existing mobile IP schemes applicable to MANETs motivated the search for more efficient gateway discovery/handoff schemes. A solution for mobile IP-based gateway discovery/handoff in dynamic source routing (DSR)-based MANET is formulated. Enhanced mobile IP protocol suitable for MANET environment, i.e. the mobile IP registration controller, is designed. In particular, one of the most significant contributions deals with the mobile IP handoff triggering mechanism which is adaptively assisted by the DSR route maintenance mechanism. Simulation results are provided to support the idea.     

All-optical router with pulse-position modulation header processing in high-speed photonic packet switching networks

In future high-speed photonic packet switching networks, it is highly desirable to carry out robust alloptical header recognition to provide high-throughput routing. The authors present a pulse-position modulation header processing (PPM-HP) scheme, offering significantly reduced routing table size and employing a single bitwise AND operation to carry out correlation of the packet header with the entire routing table entries. The downsized routing table also offers multiple transmission modes (unicast, multicast and broadcast) in the optical layer and improves core network scalability where the number of core/edge nodes could be altered without the need for changing the number of routing table entries. The authors present modelling and simulation of the packet switching router based on PPM-HP. Noise propagation and crosstalk incurred in a multiple-hop routing scenario are investigated. The simulation results are presented and compared with the theoretical calculations.     

Mobile agent based approach for QoS routing

A mobile agent based on-demand quality of service (QoS) unicast routing scheme for supporting multimedia applications is proposed that considers bandwidth, delay and packet loss as QoS metrics for feasible path computation. A mobile agent is employed to find multiple QoS paths and select a best path among them to preserve resources so as to increase call success ratio and network bandwidth utilisation as well as adapt to network dynamics. The scheme is simulated in various network scenarios (sparse and dense networks) to verify performance and operation effectiveness, and compared with RSVP-based QoS routing by using an internet routing protocol. The results demonstrate significant improvements in call success ratio and network bandwidth utilisation compared with RSVP-based QoS routing, both in case of sparse and dense networks. Benefits of the agent-based scheme are adaptability, flexibility, and support for component-based software engineering features such as software reuse, customisation and maintainability     

Context sensitive trust based geographic opportunistic routing in mobile ad hoc networks

Sādhanā - Position based opportunistic routing (POR) is a stateless, robust, and reliable geographic routing protocol in Mobile AdHoc NETwork (MANET). The opportunistic routing embraces...     

无线移动自组织网路由协议综述

本文首先简单介绍了Adhoc网的概貌，然后全面介绍了Adhoc网的路由协议。包括平面路由协议和分层路由协议，先验式和反应式路由协议以及GPs辅助型路由协议。     

移动自组网的GloMoSim仿真研究

移动自组织网络(MANET)由于其灵活的架构和组网特点,已经成为下一代无线网络应用中的关键技术,路由协议是其研究的一个重点,针对这些协议的有效仿真和验证是必要的。全球移动信息系统仿真库在移动自组网的仿真研究中得到了很广泛的应用,尤其是对大规模网络的仿真支持。本文重点介绍了GloMoSim仿真环境的特点和机理,并结合典型的自组网路由策略,分析比较了这些路由协议的性能,最后给出相关的结论。     

Q-Learning Based Routing Protocol for Congestion Avoidance

The end-to-end delay in a wired network is strongly dependent on congestion on intermediate nodes. Among lots of feasible approaches to avoid congestion efficiently, congestion-aware routing protocols tend to search for an uncongested path toward the destination through rule-based approaches in reactive/incident-driven and distributed methods. However, these previous approaches have a problem accommodating the changing network environments in autonomous and self-adaptive operations dynamically. To overcome this drawback, we present a new congestion-aware routing protocol based on a Q-learning algorithm in software-defined networks where logically centralized network operation enables intelligent control and management of network resources. In a proposed routing protocol, either one of uncongested neighboring nodes are randomly selected as next hop to distribute traffic load to multiple paths or Q-learning algorithm is applied to decide the next hop by modeling the state, Q-value, and reward function to set the desired path toward the destination. A new reward function that consists of a buffer occupancy, link reliability and hop count is considered. Moreover, look ahead algorithm is employed to update the Q-value with values within two hops simultaneously. This approach leads to a decision of the optimal next hop by taking congestion status in two hops into account, accordingly. Finally, the simulation results presented approximately 20% higher packet delivery ratio and 15% shorter end-to-end delay, compared to those with the existing scheme by avoiding congestion adaptively.