A model to predict minimum required clamp pre-loads in light of fixture–workpiece compliance

The determination of minimum required clamp pre-loads is an important process in the design of machining fixtures. This paper presents a linear, clamp pre-load (LCPL) model that can be applied to fixture–workpiece systems whose compliance is load invariant. The model considers the static deformation of the fixture–workpiece system in response to the clamping process and the machining process. Sources of compliance throughout a fixture–workpiece system are considered. The model computes the minimum required pre-loads necessary to prevent workpiece slip at the fixture–workpiece joints throughout the machining process.This paper also describes an experimental study that was used to characterize the accuracy of the LCPL model with regard to the application of a ramping external load to a fixture–workpiece system. Over the contact conditions tested, the LCPL model was observed to overestimate the minimum required clamp pre-loads by an average of 7%. This experimental study also revealed the sensitivity of the computed pre-loads to the relative compliance of the fixture elements as well as the coefficient of friction.     

Determination of minimum clamping forces for dynamically stable fixturing

This paper presents a model-based framework for determining the minimum required clamping forces that ensure the dynamic stability of a fixtured workpiece during machining. The framework consists of a dynamic model for simulating the vibratory behavior of the fixtured workpiece subjected to time- and space-varying machining loads, a geometric model for capturing the continuously changing geometry and inertia of the fixture–workpiece system during machining, a static model for determining the localized fixture–workpiece contact deformations due to clamping, a model for checking the dynamic stability of the fixtured workpiece, and a model for determining the optimal set of clamping forces that satisfies the stability criteria for a given machining operation. The clamping force optimization problem is formulated as a bilevel nonlinear programming problem and solved using the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique featuring computational intelligence. A simulation example solved using the developed approach reveals that the minimum required clamping forces for dynamically stable fixturing are significantly affected by the fixture–workpiece system dynamics and its continuous change during machining due to the material removal effect.     

Analysis of the effects of fixture clamping sequence on part location errors

Several fixture-related error sources are known to contribute to part location error, which can lead to poor part quality. In addition to typical error sources, such as fixture geometric error and elastic deformation of the fixture and part due to clamping forces, the clamping sequence used can also influence part position and orientation. In this paper, the effect of clamping sequence on workpiece location error is modeled analytically for a fixture–workpiece system where all major compliance sources and fixture geometric error are considered. Part location error is quantified by the displacement of a response point on the part surface. An algorithmic procedure designed to understand how forces and deformations change as clamps are applied sequentially is presented. The effect of clamping sequence on part location error and locator reaction force is examined through model simulations and experiments via an example involving a 3-2-1 machining fixture.     

Prediction of workpiece deformation in a fixture system using the finite element method

Knowledge of workpiece deformations induced by loading in a fixture–workpiece system is important to ensure quality part production. Suitable methods for accurately predicting such deformations are essential to the design and operation of fixtures. In this regard, finite element modeling has been widely applied by researchers and practitioners. However, these studies generally neglect the role of compliance of the fixture body on workpiece deformation. Also lacking is knowledge of the effects of different finite element model parameters on workpiece deformation. This study uses finite element analysis (FEA) to model a fixture–workpiece system and to explore the influence of compliance of the fixture body on workpiece deformation. In addition, the effects of certain finite element model parameters on the prediction accuracy are also examined. Experimental verification of the workpiece deformations and locator reaction forces predicted by the FEA model shows agreement within 5% of the experimental data. For the fixture–workpiece system analyzed in this study, it was found that 98% of all system compliance is captured by modeling just the workpiece and fixture contact tips. The remainder of deformation occurred in the other fixture components. The accuracy and computational time tradeoffs are given for various fixture models.     

A model for synthesis of the fixturing configuration in pin-array type flexible machining fixtures

This paper presents a model for the synthesis of the fixturing configuration in pin-array type flexible machining fixtures. These fixtures possess an array of pins that hold parts by conforming to their shape. The proposed algorithm aims to achieve a specified level of fixture–workpiece conformability and stable equilibrium while keeping the workpiece rigid body motion due to fixture elastic deformation at or below a user-specified value. Specifically, the model finds the minimum clamping loads and the optimal number, position and dimensions of the pins necessary to achieve the conformability and stiffness goals for a workpiece having an arbitrary geometry and subjected to quasi-static machining/assembly forces. Experimental data for the X-clamp^® flexible pin-array vise is used to validate the proposed synthesis model.     

Finite element modeling of fixture–workpiece contacts: single contact modeling and experimental verification

Knowledge of workpiece elastic deformation and reaction forces are essential for machining surface error prediction and stability analysis of the fixture–workpiece system. A finite element (FE) model of the fixture–workpiece system is well-suited for predicting workpiece elastic deformation and reaction forces as it can easily account for all sources of compliance in the system. However, the reaction forces and workpiece elastic deformations predicted by the FE model are known to be very sensitive to the boundary conditions used to model the fixture–workpiece contact interface. In this paper, the effects of different FE boundary conditions on the deformation and reaction force predictions for a single fixture–workpiece contact are analyzed. Specifically, frictional contact elements, and nodal force and displacement boundary conditions applied to spherical–planar and planar–planar locator and clamp contact geometries are considered. The effects of workpiece compliance on the prediction accuracy are also evaluated. Based on this study, specific guidelines for FE modeling of locator–workpiece/clamp–workpiece contacts are developed and verified through experiments.     

Flexible multibody dynamics based fixture-workpiece analysis model for fixturing stability

The machining force and torque exerted on a workpiece vary as the cutter moves along the tool path, therefore a dynamic approach is essential for fixturing stability analysis. This paper presents a technique to dynamically model and analyze the fixture-workpiece system subjected to time-varying machining loads. Combining the advantages of FEA (Finite Element Analysis) and nonlinear rigid body dynamics, a flexible multibody dynamic model is formulated to incorporate the overall interaction (clamping forces, machining loads, and contact friction) between flexible workpiece and compliant fixture elements. Three major parameters affecting the fixturing stability, namely the magnitude, application sequence, and placement of fixturing clamps, are analyzed. Additionally, the time dependent deformation of a flexible workpiece under clamping and machining loads is estimated. A scaled engine block with the 3–2–1 fixturing scheme subjected to face milling operation is given as an example. Comparison between the simulation result and experimental data shows a reasonable agreement.     

Improved workpiece location accuracy through fixture layout optimization

Inaccuracies in workpiece location lead to errors in position and orientation of a machined feature on the workpiece. The ability to accurately locate a workpiece in a machining fixture is strongly influenced by rigid body displacements of the workpiece caused by elastic deformation of loaded fixture–workpiece contacts. This paper presents a model for improving workpiece location accuracy in fixturing. A discrete elastic contact model is used to represent each fixture–workpiece contact. Reduction in workpiece locating error due to rigid body displacements is achieved through optimal placement of locators and clamps around the workpiece. The layout optimization model is also shown to improve the overall workpiece deflection and reaction force characteristics.     

Experimental determination of the friction coefficient on the workpiece-fixture contact surface in workholding applications

Surface flatness, geometric integrity and micro-surface finish characteristics are crucial for automotive industry to properly seal joints, reduce leakage and consequently increasing engines efficiency and reducing emissions. Optimum fixture layout is a key element in achieving this goal. Machining of flexible parts impose further challenges to the selection of a proper fixture scenario.Workpiece motion arising from localized elastic deformation at the workpiece/fixture contacts due to machining and clamping forces significantly affect the workpiece location accuracy and hence the machined part quality. The tangential friction force plays an important role in fixture configuration design as it can be utilized to reduce the number of fixture components, thereby the workpiece features accessibility to machining operations and providing a damping mechanism to dissipate input energy from machining forces out of the workpiece/fixture system.Although the literature is full of research on friction and its application, it lacks research that relates to the contact found in workpiece/fixture systems. This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation of the workpiece/fixture contact characteristics.     

基于层叠式夹持的夹具失效形式分析

目的 为了解决超薄蓝宝石晶片的双平面加工问题,确定层叠式夹具基盘及限位片的材料,并对限位片的失效形式进行分析.方法 通过分析层叠式夹具中工件在双平面加工中的受力状态及传统双平面加工工件受力状态,确定限位片的受力状态.测量蓝宝石与基盘间的摩擦力对基盘材料进行选择,通过受力分析结合摩擦因数计算限位片的剪切强度,对限位片的材料进行初步选择.在平面抛光机上进行加压试验,对限位片的失效形式进行分析.结果 层叠式夹具在双平面加工中受到工件施加的力小于传统双平面加工行星轮受到的力.在3种基盘材料中,不锈钢材料与蓝宝石晶片间的摩擦力较大,铸铁次之,铝合金最小.液滴在2个表面间形成的液膜对不锈钢和铸铁的摩擦因数有一定的增益效果.基盘选择不锈钢材料,限位片选择玻璃纤维板材料的情况下,限位片所承受的加工压力随着夹持厚度的增加而呈现非线性增加.限位片的主要失效形式表现为限位区域被蓝宝石晶片的边缘切割,受基盘及蓝宝石平面度的影响.结论 层叠式夹具对材料强度的要求更低,更加适用于超薄平面零件的双平面加工.限位片失效受基盘高度差的影响,为保证限位片的夹持效果,应尽量降低基盘表面的高度差.     

Machining fixture layout optimization using the genetic algorithm

Dimensional and form accuracy of a workpiece are influenced by the fixture layout selected for the machining operation. Hence, optimization of fixture layout is a critical aspect of machining fixture design. This paper presents a fixture layout optimization technique that uses the genetic algorithm (GA) to find the fixture layout that minimizes the deformation of the machined surface due to clamping and machining forces over the entire tool path. The advantages of the GA-based method over previously reported non-linear programming methods for fixture layout optimization are discussed. Two GA-based fixture layout optimization approaches are implemented and compared by applying them to several two-dimensional example problems.     

An investigation of the effectiveness of fixture layout optimization methods

Deriving the optimal layout of fixture elements is critical to minimizing the impact of fixture–workpiece deformation on machined feature error. Various optimization methods for solving this problem have been reported. Unfortunately no investigation has been executed to compare their relative performance. This paper presents the methodology and results of an extensive investigation into the relative effectiveness of the main elements of these competing methods. All methods were tested over a broad range of conditions. Performance measures that were tracked included solution quality, solution repeatability, and computation time. The results of this investigation show that the best overall performance is provided by optimization methods that use both the genetic algorithm and continuous interpolation for the distribution of boundary conditions.     

发动机进排气导管座圈锪铰专用机床设计

针对企业摩托车发动机缸体现有工艺存在加工精度、合格率低及生产效率跟不上市场需求的问题,在分析现有加工手段优劣的基础上,利用工序集中原则,将缸体进排气座圈孔、导管孔及平面的精加工集中于一台设备上进行加工,提出了两次装夹、多工件、多工位、多刀具复合加工的全新工艺方案。根据工件加工姿态确定了双工位、双夹具,每个夹具装夹两个工件的整体布局方案,工位一、二相互协作完成缸体工序加工内容;最后,根据整体方案对专用夹具、专用刀具及专用主轴箱等关键零部件进行了详细设计及阐述。     

Finite element method based machining simulation environment for analyzing part errors induced during milling of thin-walled components

The rigid body motion of the workpieces and their elastic–plastic deformations induced during high speed milling of thin-walled parts are the main root causes of part geometrical and dimensional variabilities; these are governed mainly from the choice of process plan parameters such as fixture layout design, operation sequence, selected tool path strategies and the values of cutting variables. Therefore, it becomes necessary to judge the validity of a given process plan before going into actual machining. This paper presents an overview of a comprehensive finite element method (FEM) based milling process plan verification model and associated tools, which by considering the effects of fixturing, operation sequence, tool path and cutting parameters simulates the milling process in a transient 3D virtual environment and predicts the part thin wall deflections and elastic–plastic deformations during machining. The advantages of the proposed model over previous works are: (i) Performs a computationally efficient transient thermo-mechanical coupled field milling simulation of complex prismatic parts comprising any combination of machining features like steps, slots, pockets, nested features, etc., using a feature based milling simulation approach; (ii) Predicts the workpiece non-linear behavior during machining due to its changing geometry, inelastic material properties and fixture–workpiece flexible contacts; (iii) Allows the modelling of the effects of initial residual stresses (residing inside the raw stock) on part deformations; (iv) Incorporates an integrated analytical machining load (cutting force components and average shear plane temperature) model; and (v) Provides a seamless interface to import an automatic programming tool file (APT file) generated by CAM packages like CATIA V5. The prediction accuracy of the model was validated experimentally and the obtained numerical and experimental results were found in good agreement.     

Sacrificial structure preforms for thin part machining

Thin parts are often difficult to create by machining because they have insufficient static and dynamic stiffness. Accurate thin parts are difficult to achieve due to clamping forces, cutting forces, residual stresses, and chatter. Sacrificial structure preforms support the part during machining, but they are not part of the finished component. Preforms may be created in many ways, including forging, welding, gluing, casting, or additive processes. They can be used in many workpiece materials including metals, polymers, and ceramics. We describe a novel process that uses sacrificial structures to make machining insensitive to the thinness of finished parts.     

Determination of workpiece flow stress and friction at the chip–tool contact for high-speed cutting

This paper presents a methodology to determine simultaneously (a) the flow stress at high deformation rates and temperatures that are encountered in the cutting zone, and (b) the friction at the chip–tool interface. This information is necessary to simulate high-speed machining using FEM based programs. A flow stress model based on process dependent parameters such as strain, strain-rate and temperature was used together with a friction model based on shear flow stress of the workpiece at the chip–tool interface. High-speed cutting experiments and process simulations were utilized to determine the unknown parameters in flow stress and friction models. This technique was applied to obtain flow stress for P20 mold steel at hardness of 30 HRC and friction data when using uncoated carbide tooling at high-speed cutting conditions. The average strain, strain-rates and temperatures were computed both in primary (shear plane) and secondary (chip–tool contact) deformation zones. The friction conditions in sticking and sliding regions at the chip–tool interface are estimated using Zorev's stress distribution model. The shear flow stress (k_chip) was also determined using computed average strain, strain-rate, and temperatures in secondary deformation zone, while the friction coefficient (μ) was estimated by minimizing the difference between predicted and measured thrust forces. By matching the measured values of the cutting forces with the predicted results from FEM simulations, an expression for workpiece flow stress and the unknown friction parameters at the chip–tool contact were determined.     

快速加工中心孔的专用夹具设计

简述了专用夹具的作用,设计了在车床上快速加工中心孔的专用夹具。通过夹紧力的验算,该夹具完全可以实现对工件的夹紧。介绍了此夹具的结构及使用方法,分析了其加工优势。此夹具结构简单、适用范围广、夹紧可靠,可降低劳动强度、提高生产率,具有较强的人性化效果和达到降低生产成本的目的。     

一种汽车前桥扭杆类工件的车削加工方法

提供一种新的汽车前桥扭杆类工件的车削加工方法:工件通过前、后两套可以伺服移动的主轴箱,将工件穿过前、后两套位于各自主轴箱上的背靠背形式安装的夹紧工装;工件两端内侧分别夹紧,将需要加工的两端外圆及端面分别置于两套卡盘卡爪近端外侧;双拖板双刀架结构同时对工件两端进行车削加工。工件的上下料采用桁架式机械手,通过数控系统编程,实现了可编程控制工件的自动装卸。此加工方法在充分保证装夹刚性的前提下,工件自动安装,一次装夹完成加工,不仅提高加工效率,而且保证了加工位置与安装基准的相对位置精度,提高了工件尺寸的一致性。     

Improving the shape quality of bearing rings in soft turning by using a Fast Tool Servo

In machining of ring shaped components, the workpiece is deformed by the clamping forces of the chuck. This elastic deformation generates shape deviations in soft turning. Moreover, the machining process generates locally varying residual stresses which contribute to shape deviation of the workpiece. Hence, in machining of thin-walled bearing rings hexagonal out‐of‐roundness up to 200 μm occur. In order to minimize the shape deviations, a long stroke Fast Tool Servo (FTS) for controlling the depth of cut was developed. The applied FTS differs from other published FTS systems in the guidance design. The moving tool holder is suspended to the FTS frame by flexure joints instead of using a linear guidance. The flexure joints provide a low stiffness in moving direction and high stiffness in orthogonal directions. The high stiffness in cutting force direction is essential for a real time reduction of shape deviations in soft turning. In this paper, results of an experimental investigation for the reduction of the shape deviation by adapted non circular machining are presented, using the developed FTS. Based on the results, the influence of the cutting forces on part accuracy is discussed.     

Process simulation using finite element method — prediction of cutting forces, tool stresses and temperatures in high-speed flat end milling

End milling of die/mold steels is a highly demanding operation because of the temperatures and stresses generated on the cutting tool due to high workpiece hardness. Modeling and simulation of cutting processes have the potential for improving cutting tool designs and selecting optimum conditions, especially in advanced applications such as high-speed milling. The main objective of this study was to develop a methodology for simulating the cutting process in flat end milling operation and predicting chip flow, cutting forces, tool stresses and temperatures using finite element analysis (FEA). As an application, machining of P-20 mold steel at 30 HRC hardness using uncoated carbide tooling was investigated. Using the commercially available software DEFORM-2D™, previously developed flow stress data of the workpiece material and friction at the chip–tool contact at high deformation rates and temperatures were used. A modular representation of undeformed chip geometry was used by utilizing plane strain and axisymmetric workpiece deformation models in order to predict chip formation at the primary and secondary cutting edges of the flat end milling insert. Dry machining experiments for slot milling were conducted using single insert flat end mills with a straight cutting edge (i.e. null helix angle). Comparisons of predicted cutting forces with the measured forces showed reasonable agreement and indicate that the tool stresses and temperatures are also predicted with acceptable accuracy. The highest tool temperatures were predicted at the primary cutting edge of the flat end mill insert regardless of cutting conditions. These temperatures increase wear development at the primary cutting edge. However, the highest tool stresses were predicted at the secondary (around corner radius) cutting edge.