A modular modeling approach for describing the in-plane forming behavior of unidirectional non-crimp-fabrics

Various commercially available unidirectional (UD) non-crimp-fabrics (NCFs) are currently used for manufacturing carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) parts. These UD NCFs can differ significantly in their forming behavior. For optimizing and ensuring the manufacturability of the forming process of CFRP parts manufactured from UD NCFs these differences have to be taken into account. This motivates developing an efficient and universally applicable modular modeling approach for describing the in-plane forming behavior of various UD NCFs. The first component of this modular approach is a hyperelastic material model that accurately predicts the fiber orientation of UD NCFs during forming. This material model is implemented via a user-defined material subroutine in the commercial finite element package LS-DYNA. The second component is a simple truss structure that allows modeling the various stitch patterns of the different UD NCFs. This modular model can be calibrated via simple tensile tests. To demonstrate the versatility of this approach, the in-plane forming behavior of three different UD NCFs is validated by comparing experimental data and simulation results of the common picture frame test.     

电磁层析无损检测系统中碳纤维复合材料缺陷重建的仿真

在电磁层析成像系统中,对带缺陷的碳纤维复合材料进行了图像重建仿真。分别建立了单方向和编织型材料的Ansoft Maxwell三维模型来显示碳纤维复合材料的方向性,仿真结果和试验基本符合。对于单方向的碳纤维复合材料,采用了简单比较法和线性反投影算法来确定缺陷的位置。结果表明,使用更加精确的重建算法的电磁层析无损检测技术可以用来探测碳纤维复合材料中的缺陷．     

Visco-elastic stress distributions and elastic properties in unidirectional composites with large volume fractions of fibers

In this work, the visco-elastic stress distributions and elastic properties of unidirectional graphite/polyimide composites have been examined as a function of the volume fraction of fibers. The stress distributions were determined by employing two different methods, namely the finite element method (FEM) assuming either hexagonal or square fiber arrangements, and the Eshelby method modified by Mori and Tanaka to account for the presence of multiple fibers. It has been presented in this research that the Eshelby/Mori-Tanaka approach can be used for the calculations of the stresses inside and outside graphite fibers provided the volume fraction of the fibers does not substantially exceed 35% in the case of the square fiber array and 50% for the hexagonal fiber distribution. It has also been shown that the elastic properties of unidirectional graphite/polyimide composites can be accurately determined using the analytical Eshelby/Mori-Tanaka method even for large volume fractions of fibers.     

Orthogonal cutting mechanics of multi-directional carbon fiber reinforced polymer with interlaminar bonding effect

This paper determines the chip formation mechanism, fiber-matrix failure modes, and cutting forces in orthogonal cutting of multi-directional carbon fiber reinforced polymer (MD CFRP) with interlaminar bonding effect. The cutting experiments show that the varying chip formation angles with different fiber orientations in cutting unidirectional plies converge for MD CFRP. A new analytical mechanics model for cutting MD CFRP is developed to predict the chip formation angle and failure modes based on the minimum energy principle for all plies. The model with experimental validation reveals the different cutting mechanisms between UD and MD CFRPs.     

Drilling thick fabric woven CFRP laminates with double point angle drills

Carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRPs) have many desirable properties, including high strength-to-weight ratio, high stiffness-to-weight ratio, high corrosion resistance, and low thermal expansion. These properties make CFRP suitable for use in structural components for aerospace applications. Drilling is the most common machining process applied to CFRP laminates, and it is difficult due to the extremely abrasive nature of the carbon fibers and low thermal conductivity of CFRP. It is a challenge for manufacturers to drill CFRP materials without causing any delamination on the work part while also considering the economics of the process. The subject of this study is the drilling of fabric woven type CFRP laminates which are known to be more resistant to delamination than unidirectional type CFRP laminates. The objective of this study is to investigate the influence of double point angle drill geometry on drilling performance through an experimental approach. An uncoated carbide and two diamond coated carbide drills with different drill tip angles are employed in drilling experiments of aerospace quality thick fabric woven CFRP laminates. Force and torque measurements are used to investigate appropriate drilling conditions based on drill geometry and ideal drilling parameters are determined. Tool life tests of the drills were conducted and the condition of the diamond coating is examined as a function of drilling operational parameters. High feed rate drilling experiments are observed to be favorable in terms of drill wear. Feed is observed to be more important than speed, and the upper limit of feed is dictated by the drill design and the rigidity of the machine drill. Hole diameter variation due to drill wear is monitored to determine drill life. At high feeds, hole diameter tolerance is observed to be more critical than hole exit delamination during drilling of fabric woven CFRP laminates.     

Evaluation of the total cutting force in drilling of CFRP: a novel experimental method for the analysis of the cutting mechanism

The CFRP drilling process has not yet been fully mastered, which is due to the fact that it is not possible to measure all the cutting force components. In order to gain new insights into the drilling process, a novel experimental setup is being developed in order to record all cutting force components (cutting force, feed force, passive force). The results show that the force components are strongly dependent on the fiber cutting angle θ and the wear condition. Thereby, it will be possible to draw conclusions about the cutting mechanics in the drilling of unidirectional CFRP based on the transformation of the forces perpendicular and parallel to the fiber.     

Research on the fiber lay-up orientation detection of unidirectional CFRP laminates composite using thermal-wave radar imaging

A depth dynamic-resolution thermal-wave radar imaging (TWRI) was used to detect fiber lay-up orientations in the unidirectional CFRP laminate composite. A phase characteristic of thermal wave radar (TWR) signal was proposed and calculated by discrete fractional Fourier transform (DFrFT). The DFrFT phase distribution contour line was approximated as an ellipse and fitted by a non-standard elliptic equation. The ellipse ration angle dependent on the DFrFT phase (defined as Ellipse Angle Curve, EAC) was found to be sensitive to the fiber lay-up orientations of CFRP composite. An inverse methodology was developed to quantitatively characterize the fiber lay-up orientation angle through reconstructing DFrFT phase distribution. A cost function that minimized the square of DFrFT phase difference between TWRI inspection and numerical calculations was constructed, and a hybrid algorithm that combined the simulation annealing (SA) with Nelder–Mead simplex research (NM) method was employed to solve the cost function and find the global optimal solution of the fiber layer-up orientation angle. Experimental investigation of a 7-layer CFRP laminates [0°/45°/90°/0°]_s validated the feasibility of estimating carbon fiber layer-up orientations by TWRI.     

Impedance-based wireless debonding condition monitoring of CFRP laminated concrete structures

Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminated concrete structures are used widely in a range of engineering fields because of their many advantages. However they always carry the risk of structural collapse initiated from the debonding conditions that might occur between the CFRP and concrete surface. This study employed an electro-mechanical impedance-based wireless structural health monitoring (SHM) technique by applying PZT ceramic patches to identify the debonding conditions of a CFRP laminated reinforced concrete beam. In the experimental study, the CFRP-reinforced concrete specimens were fabricated and the impedance signals were measured from the wireless impedance sensor node according to the different debonding conditions between the concrete and CFRP. Cross correlation (CC)-based data analysis was conducted to quantify the changes in impedance measured at the PZT patches due to the debonding conditions. The results confirmed that an impedance-based wireless SHM technique can be used effectively for monitoring the debonding of CFRP laminated concrete structures.     

CFRP drilling: Fundamental study of local feed force and consequences on hole exit damage.

Carbon Fiber-Reinforced by Plastic (CFRP) is now commonly used in the aircraft industry. The main challenge is to manufacture this difficult-to-cut work material, considering its quality criteria and economical aspects. Drilling is the main machining operation required for the assembly of the aircraft structure. In this paper, results are presented and discussed regarding exit delamination studied at a local scale. Because of the anisotropic properties of CFRP, the fiber cutting modes change with the composite sequence combined with the drill revolution parameters. The local feed forces generated by the cutting edge on the hole bottom may be correlated with delaminating aspects. A posttreatment method is proposed to analyze precisely these feed force and cutting torque distributions. Appropriate ply sequences are identified in order to limit the mechanical load concentration and the risk of delamination or uncut fibers     

Analytical formulae for electromechanical effective properties of 3–1 longitudinally porous piezoelectric materials

A unidirectional fiber composite is considered here, the fibers of which are empty cylindrical holes periodically distributed in a transversely isotropic piezoelectric matrix. The empty-fiber cross-section is circular and the periodicity is the same in two directions at an angle π/2 or π/3. Closed-form formulae for all electromechanical effective properties of these 3–1 longitudinally periodic porous piezoelectric materials are presented. The derivation of such expressions is based on the asymptotic homogenization method as a limit of the effective properties of two-phase transversely isotropic parallel fiber-reinforced composites when the fibers properties tend to zero. The plane effective coefficients satisfy the corresponding Schulgasser–Benveniste–Dvorak universal type of relations. A new relation among the antiplane effective constants from the solutions of two antiplane strains and potential local problems is found. This relation is valid for arbitrary shapes of the empty-fiber cross-sections. Based on such a relation, and using recent numerical results for isotropic conductive composites, the antiplane effective properties are computed for different geometrical shapes of the empty-fiber cross-section. Comparisons with other analytical and numerical theories are presented.     

Evaluation of residual stress development in FRP-metal hybrids using fiber Bragg grating sensors

This paper presents experimental measurement methods for the determination and evaluation of process related thermal residual stresses in fiber metal laminates. A cure monitoring system with fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors is used to measure the in-plane strains during processing of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP)-steel laminates. The simultaneous measurement captures the thermal expansion during the heating stages, the cure shrinkage, and the cooling thermal shrinkage. The results enable the characterization of the co-cure bonding process and the stress transfer between the metal and FRP-layers during the creation process. The residual strains, which are used for calculation of the residual stresses, are recorded at room temperature after manufacturing. In addition, an advanced method using FBG-sensors and the deflection of asymmetric hybrid specimens is developed to validate the gained residual stress data. Asymmetrical specimens are created by removing selected layers after cure. Quantitative evaluation is achieved by determination of their curvature and measuring the strain changes with the embedded FBG-sensors. For validation, the methods were successfully demonstrated on two different curing cycles with different resulting residual stress levels. The simultaneous strain measurement enables the investigation of stress development and delivers more in-depth process knowledge for further optimization of the manufacturing process.     

Study of induced ultrasonic deviation for the detection and identification of ply waviness in carbon fibre reinforced polymer

Ply waviness is a major defect, which can appear in certain composite materials such as CFRP. Attenuation and ultrasound velocity measurements allow the detection, but not the identification, of ply waviness. In the present study it is shown that in order to identify this ply waviness, it is important to take the deviation of the ultrasonic beam into account. Two different methods allowing such deviations to be detected are proposed. On the one hand, the deviation produces an asymmetrical behaviour in the responses obtained at oblique incidence angles. This phenomenon is revealed through the study of incidence angle ranges, which can normally be superimposed. On the other hand, the double scanning technique allows the deviation of the energy maxima of the transmitted acoustic field to be determined. In both cases, the study of induced deviation reveals that it is sensitive to the presence of ply waviness. These methods have been experimentally validated and their potential use, depending on the thickness of the component, is discussed.     

单向碳化硅短纤维增强玻璃陶瓷材料弯曲断裂行为的研究

制备了单向短碳化硅纤维增强玻璃陶瓷的复合材料。研究了复合材料的弯曲断裂行为，以及相关的增强机制。结果表明．短碳化硅纤维可以有效提高玻璃陶瓷的断裂强度，纤维体积分数为30％时，沿纤维方向的平均弯曲断裂强度是基体材料的3倍：短碳化硅纤维增强玻璃陶瓷基复合材料的弯曲应力-挠度曲线、以及断裂行为具有与长纤维复合材料类似的特征．其断裂方式为非灾难性断裂。单向短碳化硅纤维增强玻璃陶瓷基复合材料的主要增强机制为纤维脱粘、纤维滑移、纤维桥接、纤维断裂与纤维拔出。     

Prediction of cutting forces in helical end milling fiber reinforced polymers

Machining of fiber reinforced composites is an important activity in the integration of these advanced materials into engineering applications. Machining damage due to excessive cutting forces may result in rejecting the composite components at the last stages of their production cycle. Therefore, the ability to predict the cutting forces is essential for selecting process parameters that would result in minimum machining damage. This work utilizes mechanistic modeling techniques for simulating the cutting of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) with a helical end mill. A methodology is developed for predicting the cutting forces by transforming specific cutting energies from orthogonal cutting to oblique cutting. It is shown that the method developed is capable of predicting the cutting forces in helical end milling of unidirectional and multidirectional composites and over the entire range of fiber orientations from 0° to 180°. This is a significant improvement over previous models that were only capable of addressing orthogonal cutting and/or a limited range of fiber orientations. Model predictions were compared with experimental data and were found to be in good agreement in cutting unidirectional laminate, but with lesser agreement in the case of a multidirectional laminate.     

Utility of microstructure modeling for simulation of micro-mechanical response of composites containing non-uniformly distributed fibers

Composite microstructures often contain non-uniformly distributed fibers having different sizes. Therefore, in finite-element (FE)-based simulations of the mechanical response of composites, the non-uniform spatial arrangement of fiber centers and distribution of fiber sizes need to be incorporated. In this contribution, a unique combination of digital image processing, microstructure modeling, and FE-based simulations is used to develop a methodology for modeling the micro-mechanical response of composites having non-uniform spatial arrangement of fibers. The methodology is developed via modeling of the micro-mechanical response of a ceramic matrix composite (CMC) containing unidirectional aligned Nicalon (SiC) fibers that are non-uniformly distributed in a glass ceramic matrix. For comparison, the micro-mechanical response of typical digital images of the composite microstructure and a simple microstructure model having periodic arrangement of fibers are also simulated. It is shown that the computer simulated microstructure model that accounts for non-uniform spatial arrangement of fibers having a range of sizes can be used for realistic parametric studies on the micro-mechanical response of the composite.     

Hybrid joining process for carbon fiber reinforced thermosetting plastic and metallic thin sheets by chemical bonding and plastic deformation

A new joining process for thin metallic and continuous carbon fiber reinforced thermosetting plastic (CFRP) sheets is proposed. This joining process is a hybrid of chemical bonding and plastic deformation, usable for ultra-lightweight structures. In contrast to conventional joining methods, such as rivet joining with an adhesive, the proposed method does not require any additional components and can eliminate holes that would cut the continuous carbon fibers and cause stress concentration. Hence, a smaller weight and a higher joining quality can be attained, especially for thin sheets. Aiming at making comparison and demonstrating the applicability of the proposed hybrid joining method, two thermosetting CFRP sheets with different laminates were used as lap adherends in the experiment. The effects of the deformation temperature, the use of a dummy sheet and the relative positions of the sample and dummy sheet on the joining quality were systematically investigated and optimized. The optimal hybrid joint shows high-quality bonding without delamination or adhesive failure. The tensile shear test of single-lap A2017P-CFRP hybrid joints manufactured under optimal experimental conditions indicates that, compared with adhesive bonding and conventional rivet joining with an adhesive, the proposed joining method has obvious superiority in terms of tensile shear load, slip displacement and absorption energy.     

Feasibility study of the rotary ultrasonic elliptical machining of carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP)

Carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) are used for various aircraft structural components because of their superior mechanical and physical properties such as high specific strength, high specific stiffness, etc. However, when CFRP are machined, rapid tool wear and delamination are troublesome. Therefore, cost effective and excellent quality machining of CFRP remains a challenge. In this paper, the rotary ultrasonic elliptical machining (RUEM) using core drill is proposed for drilling of holes on CFRP panels. This method combines advantages of core-drill and elliptical tool vibration towards achieving better quality, delamination free holes. The cutting force model and chip-removal phenomenon in ultrasonic elliptical vibration cutting are introduced and analyzed. The feasibility to machine CFRP for RUEM is verified experimentally. The results demonstrate that compared to conventional drilling (CD), the chip-removal rate has been improved, tool wear is reduced, precision and surface quality around holes is enhanced, delamination at hole exits has been prevented and significant reduction in cutting force has been achieved.     

CF8611/AC531复合材料老化时的电化学行为及与其偶接时7B04铝合金的当量折算系数

目的为掌握航空用CFRP在老化过程中的电化学特性,准确获得CFRP/金属偶对中金属的当量折算系数,方法以海洋环境为背景,以飞机常用的CF8611/AC531复合材料和7B04铝合金为研究对象,开展了CFRP的加速老化试验及其在不同电解液中的极化试验,并使用光学显微镜、SEM、FTIR等设备,观测其在老化过程中的性能变化.同时,在充分考虑电偶效应腐蚀加速作用的前提下,改进当量折算系数计算方法,基于电偶腐蚀模型获得CFRP/7B04偶对的电偶电流,并计算了相应的折算系数.结果随着老化的进行,该型CFRP表面环氧树脂逐渐分解,使得碳纤维裸露,阴极性质得到增强.在含Cu2+的电解液中极化时,碳纤维裸露区域会形成Cu单质聚集,老化420 h后,裸露面积占比维持在0.9左右,不再增长,即阴极性质达到相对稳定状态,据此获得了CFRP的自腐蚀电流密度与碳纤维裸露面积的关系曲线,并划分了表面活性阴极区和惰性阴极区,明确了其老化机制和阴极反应机制.得到了CFRP/7B04偶对的相关腐蚀参数和改进后的当量折算系数.结论该型复合材料的阴极性质良好,活性阴极区是其阴极性质的重要来源,在使用时应避免与金属直接接触.在设计结构件的加速腐蚀环境谱时,务必考虑电偶效应,以提高环境谱的精度和适用性.     

An investigation of workpiece temperature variation of helical milling for carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP)

Better prediction about the temperature distribution of workpiece has a great significance for improving performance of cutting process, especially relating to the workpiece of carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP). In this paper, a heat transfer model is developed to investigate the temperature distribution of CFRP workpiece in helical milling process. Depending on characteristics of helical milling, two kinds of heat sources have been presented, the geometrical shapes of which are modeled as semicircle arc and line. The complex trajectory of each heat source relative to the stable workpiece has been studied. Based on the analysis, unsteady state three-dimensional governing equation of heat transfer in CFRP workpiece with adiabatic boundary condition is proposed. The solution procedure of this nonhomogeneous heat transfer equation consists of two steps: it is transformed into homogeneous equation according to the heat transfer theory firstly; and then the homogeneous equation is solved using the separation of variables. Basing on the solution of the homogeneous equation, the temperature distribution resulting from the moving semicircle arc heat source and the line heat source has been studied detailedly. In order to calculate the heat generation in the helical milling process, a cutting force model is presented and the heat partition transferring into the CFRP workpiece is solved using the Conjugate Gradient Method. A series of tests of helical milling for CFRP are conducted, and the experiment results agree well with the results calculated by the predicted model. This model can be extended to optimize the cutting condition and restrain the thermal damage of the CFRP workpiece.     

Flexural Properties of E Glass and TR50S Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Hybrid Composites

A study on the flexural properties of E glass and TR50S carbon fiber reinforced hybrid composites is presented in this paper. Specimens were made by the hand lay-up process in an intra-ply configuration with varying degrees of glass fibers added to the surface of a carbon laminate. These specimens were then tested in the three-point bend configuration in accordance with ASTM D790-07 at three span-to-depth ratios: 16, 32, and 64. The failure modes were examined under an optical microscope. The flexural behavior was also simulated by finite element analysis, and the flexural modulus, flexural strength, and strain to failure were calculated. It is shown that although span-to-depth ratio shows an influence on the stress-strain relationship, it has no effect on the failure mode. The majority of specimens failed by either in-plane or out-of-plane local buckling followed by kinking and splitting at the compressive GFRP side and matrix cracking combined with fiber breakage at the CFRP tensile face. It is shown that positive hybrid effects exist for the flexural strengths of most of the hybrid configurations. The hybrid effect is noted to be more obvious when the hybrid ratio is small, which may be attributed to the relative position of the GFRP layer(s) with respect to the neutral plane. In contrast to this, flexural modulus seems to obey the rule of mixtures equation.