On the mechanism of the formation of widmanstätten graphite in flake graphite cast irons

The mechanism whereby Widmanstätten graphite develops during the solidification of flake graphite cast irons has been found to involve the preferential segregation and a complex interaction of specific elements at the surface of the graphite flake during solidification and the development of the plate like appendages in the solid austenite adjacent to the graphite flake. The literature has suggested that lead, calcium and hydrogen may be causal to the formation of Widmanstätten graphite, but has the interaction of these elements has not been effectively documented. While the formation of this degraded graphite is often attributed to the presence of a sufficient amount of lead alone, it has been observed that Widmanstätten graphite develops only in conjunction with a combination of factors operative at the graphite-austenite interface. Commercial flake graphite cast irons may exhibit Widmanstätten graphite as a function of lead and calcium content in the iron, moisture content in the molding media, solidification cooling rate and the rate of cooling immediately after solidification, etc. Lead contamination of cast irons was also observed to increase the chilling tendency of the iron. The detrimental effects of lead can be counteracted by the presence of rare earths in the iron, where rare earth elements react with lead to form stable, high melting point compounds.     

In Situ fracture observation and fracture toughness analysis of pearlitic graphite cast irons with different nodularity

Effects of microstructural modification and microfracture mechanisms on fracture toughness of pearlitic graphite cast irons with different nodularity were investigated by in situ observation of microfracture process. Six pearlitic graphite cast irons were fabricated by adding a small amount of Mg as a nodularizing element for graphite, and their microstructures including pearlite, ferrite, graphite, and eutectic carbide were analyzed. Most of ferrites were observed in a layer shape around graphites because of carbon-depleted zones formed near graphites. As the nodularity and nodule count increased, fracture toughness linearly increased in the cast irons except the iron containing many fine graphites. According to in situ observation of microfracture process, cracks initiated at nodular graphites and carbides even at a small load, and then propagated readily through the adjacent graphites or carbides, thereby resulting in the lowest fracture toughness. The cast iron having widely spaced graphites and ferrite layers thickly formed around graphites showed the highest fracture toughness because of the blocking of crack propagation by ductile ferrite layers and the crack blunting and deflection by graphites, which was also confirmed by the R-curve analysis.     

高强度D型石墨铸铁的研究进展

综述了灰铸铁中产生D型石墨的原因，D型石墨对灰铸铁性能的影响以及D型石墨灰铸铁的应用。国内外的研究表明：深过冷，在灰铸铁中加入提高过冷度的合金元素（钛，铝，锑，碲，稀土元素等）或者二者的结合都会促进生成D型石墨；D型石墨灰铸铁具有较高的强度，较好的抗氧化性，抗生长性，抗热疲劳性和耐磨性；D型石墨灰铸铁已经广泛用于生产玻璃模具，压缩机缸体，压缩机曲轴等铸件。笔者还介绍了采用钒钛生铁生产的D型石墨合金铸铁凸轮轴的性能特点及其应用情况。     

Graphite nucleation control in grey cast iron

Abstract

A research programme has been undertaken to achieve a more detailed understanding of graphite nucleation control in grey cast irons, at different sulphur (0˙02–0˙1%), residual aluminium (0˙001–0˙010%) and zirconium (0˙001–0˙015%) levels in iron melts. It was found that three groups of elements are important to sustain a three stage model for the nucleation of graphite in grey irons:

(i) strong deoxidising elements (Al, Zr) to promote early formed very small microinclusions, oxide based, which will act as nucleation sites for later formed complex (Mn,X)S compounds

(ii) Mn and S to sustain MnS type sulphide formation

(iii) inoculating elements (Ca, Sr, etc.) which act in the first stage or/and in the second one of graphite formation, to improve the capability of (Mn,X)S compounds to nucleate graphite.

It was confirmed that 0˙07%S level is beneficial for graphite nucleation in grey irons with a lower incidence of carbides and undercooled graphite, compared to 0˙023%S cast irons. Low residual Al level (0˙001–0˙003%) results in higher chill and more undercooled graphite and lower eutectic cell count, in inoculated irons. A 0˙007–0˙010%Al content in the melt is important to sustain type A graphite nucleation and reduced chill. Not only inoculation but also the preconditioning (Al or/and Zr) of the base iron has a strong beneficial effect on the solidification pattern of cast irons. Both Al and Zr sustain the type A graphite formation with a lower degree of undercooling and free carbides. These elements were associated in a complex alloy (FeSi based), very efficient in preconditioning of grey irons for thin wall castings, at a low addition rate.     

Effect of cerium,neodymium, praseodymium,lanthanum, and aluminum on the structure of cast iron

Conclusions The amount of cerium added to cast iron to obtain spheroidal graphite can be reduced to one-tenth the amount ordinarily used. In ordinary low-sulfur cast iron the main portion of the cerium is not utilized for the direct purpose. Considering the substantial variation in the composition and number of inclusions in cast irons, one can easily explain the reasons for the different opinions on the modifying action of cerium, neodymium, and praseodymium [1, 2].The study of the effect of small amounts of these elements on the structure of cast iron showed the stronger modifying action of cerium by comparison with praseodymium and neodymium.The obtain spheroidal graphite inclusions one purification of the alloy alone is insufficient to remove the sulfur and the nitrogen and oxygen dissolved in the liquid metal.Belorussia State University. Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 4, pp 65–67, April, 1967.     

Some paradoxical observations about spheroidal graphite degeneracy

Differential thermal analysis experiments have been performed on samples machined from Y2-blocks cast with different high-silicon spheroidal graphite irons. Depending on magnesium, silicon, cerium and antimony content, the as-cast microstructure showed various levels of chunky graphite in the central part of the blocks. In contrast, the microstructure of the materials after remelting and resolidification during differential thermal analysis consisted of lamellar or compacted graphite. The formation of chunky graphite in the as-cast microstructure is rationalized using an index or silicon equivalent that has been recently suggested. The differences in the microstructures after differential thermal analysis are discussed in terms of available free magnesium. Emphasis is finally put on the striking differences in characteristic size of the microstructures made of compacted graphite as compared to lamellar graphite and chunky graphite. This leads to tentative conclusions about growth of compacted and chunky graphite which would be worthy of further experimental investigations.     

生长条件对灰口铸铁共晶凝固过程石墨形态的作用

灰铸铁、蠕铁、球铁被统称为灰口铸铁,在现代工业中应用广泛.在主要成分相近情况下,由于微量元素等条件的不同引起石墨生长形态各异,从而同属灰口铸铁的三类铸铁性能迥异.懂得其基本规律及相关原理,有益于铸造工程技术人员在灰铁、蠕铁、球铁的生产实际中理性而有效地控制产品质量.本文基于灰口铸铁的奥氏体-石墨共晶凝固方式,从基本概念及原理、G形成过程、实际组织观察与分析的全新视角,主要针对灰铁和球铁概述了石墨形态的形成规律和机理.文中诸多图片等实例是以往国内教科书及专业书籍中未见的,文章内容也体现了对相关现象描述及观点上新的发展,有助于读者对该方面有关问题获得更为清晰的理解和认识.     

Thermal conductivity of cast iron-A review

This paper gives a brief introduction to the four research methods for the study on thermal conductivity of cast irons,including experimental measurement,statistical analysis,effective medium theory and numerical simulation.Recent studies on the thermal conductivity of various cast irons are reviewed through the influence of alloying elements,structural constituents,and temperature.The addition of alloying elements is the main reason that restricts the thermal conductivity of cast irons,especially spheroidal graphite cast iron.The connectivity of graphite has a significant effect on the thermal conductivity of flake and compacted graphite cast irons,semiquantitative and quantitative analysis of this factor is a key and difficult point in the study of thermal conductivity of cast irons.The thermal conductivities of different types of cast irons show varying degrees of dependence on temperature.This phenomenon is the combination of graphite and matrix,rather than just depending on graphite morphology.The study of the relationship between individual phase and temperature is the focus of future research.These summaries and discussions may provide reference and guidance for the future research and development of high thermal conductivity cast irons.     

Magnesium Map of the Spheroidal-graphite Structure in Ductile Cast Irons

Abstract

In this paper, the author puts forward a new proposal relating to the nucleation and growth mechanism of spheroidal graphite in magnesium-treated cast irons. The Site Theory can not only explain the nucleation and growth mechanism for spheroidal graphite, but can be also applied to the understanding of all other forms of graphite in cast irons. A magnesium map of the microstructure was analysed using EPMA in conjunction with a coloured mapping display system. A Mg halo was found as a segregation around the spheroidal graphite nodules. Although inclusions were observed within some graphite nodules, these also had an Mg halo. These results were considered sufficient to prove the site theory.     

An experimental study of metastable graphitization of cast irons

It is known that the structure of cast irons and steels can contain both cementite and graphite. In unalloyed steels and cast irons cementite is a metastable phase and can be graphitized in the process of prolonged annealing, which is used in the production of malleable cast irons and graphitized steels. Alloying with carbide-forming elements (Cr, Mn, V, etc.) in various amounts can stabilize cementite, providing stably white or stably mottled cast irons. A recently discovered phenomenon connected with formation of metastable graphite in the structure of alloy cast irons and steels, which undergoes carbidization in prolonged annealing, has been called metastable graphitization and is much less known. Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 3, pp. 25–28, March, 1998.     

On the Roughening of Grey and Nodular-graphite Cast Irons during Surface Melting

The gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding process has been used to melt the surface on a series of grey and nodular-graphite iron castings. The topography of the fusion zone was foum to be markedly different for the two types of cast iron: for grey cast iron the resolidified surface was very rough, with surface perturbations leading to localised height differences of up to 0.4 mm, while for nodul-graphite iron a macroscopically smooth surface was obtained. A model has been developed to account for the observed phenomena based upon the influence of sulphur on the interfacial tensions responsible for the spreading of the liquid phase on the surface of the underlying unmelted region. It is hypothesised that surface-active sulphur is available in grey cast irons to exert a depressive influence on the interfacial tensions, but that in nodular-graphite irons the sulphur is rendered immobile through its combination with magnesium. The results have implications for other directed energy surface melting processes such as laser anc electron-beam melting of cast irons.     

稀土镁球墨铸铁的起源及其早期发展--纪念稀土镁球墨铸铁投产40周年

上世纪60年代初，为了充分开发和应用我国丰富的稀土资源，包钢、锡柴、上海内研所和一机部系统的一些生产和科研单位曾各自或协同进行稀土球墨铸铁试验研究。结果发现稀土的球化作用较弱，稀土球铁的球化率不如镁球铁，但夹渣、缩松明显少于镁球铁。这种结果引起了用稀土和镁进行球化处理的设想，导致了稀土镁球铁的诞生，解决了当时国内球铁生产由于原材料和技术两方面原因引起的质量问题，对我国球墨铸铁的发展起了重要作用。研究表明，与镁球铁曲轴相比，稀土镁球铁曲轴的夹渣、缩松缺陷大幅度减少，疲劳性能和耐磨性能也明显提高，因而很快在全国范围内推广。在这之后，锡柴又试验成功稀土镁硅铁合金球化剂冲入球化处理法，取代比较不安全而且温降较大的压力包处理法，并将稀土镁球铁用于柴油机连杆、大断面曲轴以及重量达20t的16V300型气缸体，此外，1965年还研制成功等温淬火稀土镁球铁凸轮轴并投入大批量生产。稀土能中和微量元素及铁液中某些气体的反球化作用，而稀土使球墨畸变的作用也需要微量元素中和。稀土镁球铁发生石墨漂浮的临界碳当量是4．55％，与镁球铁基本相同。稀土在球铁中的应用要注意用量恰当，才能达到“扬长避短”，充分发挥其有利作用和免除其不利影响。     

球墨铸铁工业生产60年的发展

介绍了球墨铸铁60年来在产量、球化理论、球化剂及球化处理工艺、热处理技术等方面的发展情况,以及各种球化剂及球化处理工艺的特点。认为球墨铸铁由于有生产工艺简单、性能稳定、价格便宜等优点,因此目前仍在不断发展。     

球化剂中氧化镁临界含量的研究

球化剂中的有效镁含量随着氧化镁含量的增高而降低：所以球化剂中氧化镁越高，其球化能力越低。为了获得良好的球化，球化剂中氧化镁含量应低于一定的临界值。研究了球化剂中氧化镁含量对球化效果、球铁的显微组织和性能的影响，以及球化剂中所能允许的氧化镁临界含量的确定方法。     

Effect of microstructure and mechanical properties on cutting force of different cast irons with similar tensile strength

Flake graphite iron,compacted graphite iron and spheroidal graphite iron with various tensile strengths were cast. They were selected and grouped according to roughly the same tensile strength,and then the main cutting force in each group was measured and compared. The microstructures of different cast irons were characterized. The relationship between the cutting force and microstructure was established. Results show that the graphite morphology in cast irons determines the strength. In order to obtain the same strength of the cast iron with sharply edged graphite,more or finer pearlite in the matrix is needed. Graphitic cast irons with high pearlite content and smaller pearlite interlamellar spacing have higher hardness. For the cast irons with different graphite morphologies,but almost the same tensile strength,the main cutting force is obviously different,along with the hardness. Harder cast irons have a greater cutting force,but the difference in cutting force is not proportional to hardness.     

微量元素偏析对厚大断面球铁石墨形态的影响

分析了厚大断面球铁件石墨畸变的形成原因及影响因素,浇注了400mm×400mm×450mm的试块研究微量元素偏析对石墨形态的影响。结果表明：开花状石墨的中心部存在Mg、Al、La、Ca、S等元素的富集,这些元素的富集破坏了石墨生长的稳定性;而晶界上V、Ti的偏析和球化元素Mg或RE等氧化形成的氧化夹杂,破坏了奥氏体壳的稳定性,造成石墨畸变;在铁液中添加微量Sb,凝固过程中Sb偏析于石墨—奥氏体界面上,可有效抑制或减缓C向石墨球扩散,限制石墨球生长,抑制石墨球畸变。     

Effect of Rare Earth Elements on Chill Formation and Nodule Count in Thin-section Spheroidal-Graphite Cast Iron

It was found that there was a close relationship between chill formation and nodule count in spheroidal-graphite (s-g) cast irons and, further, that there was a critical nodule count above which chill did not appear. The relationship between the critical nodule count and the cooling rate of specimens was expressed in the following quadratic equation:

N=0.58R²+19.07R+1.01

where N is the critical nodule count (mm^?2) and R is the cooling rate (°C/sec). Nodule count was increased by adding small amounts of a rare earth in combination with small amounts of calcium. Some heterogeneous phases with diameters of 1 μ or more were observed at the centres of graphite spheroids. These phases were composed of spherical rare-earth sulphides containing MgS, CaS and MgO. It is suggested that rare-earth sulphides contribute as a substrate on which graphite spheroids are formed in thin section cast irons, containing rare earth elements.     

Phase diagram of the Fe-C-V-Si system and alloys based on it

The problems of obtaining globular graphite in the structure of alloyed cast irons have been investigated insufficiently thoroughly although they have great practical importance. This is associated with the fact that many alloying elements are graphite deglobularizers. The alloying elements in the composition of vanadium cast irons (vanadium and copper) hamper graphite spheroidizing. In order to neutralize their deglobularizing action the modifier should contain remodifying elements.Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 2, pp. 32 – 35, February, 1996.     

离心铸造大口径球铁管用复合功能型脱硫剂的研制

为使硫量波动的高炉铁液能适应大型离心铸造球铁铸管生产,研制了一种成本较低廉、添加操作简单的复合功能型脱硫剂。其主要组分包括强脱[S]去[O]材料钝化镁粒、碳化钙,增加石墨核心元素Zn和膨胀集渣材料珍珠岩,以及能抑制反球化作用和净化铁液的材料等。采用冲入法进行球化处理,这种脱硫剂覆盖在球化剂和孕育剂上,使用方法简单,效果良好。     

Y和Sb对厚大断面球墨铸铁石墨形态的影响

通过采用重稀土钇基稀土镁球化剂处理铁液,浇注厚大断面球铁试块,研究了重稀土Y和微量Sb对厚大断面球铁的石墨形态的影响,分析了石墨结晶的核心,并探讨了石墨畸变的原因。试验结果表明,重稀土Y在铁液中形成高熔点氧化物,残存时间长,作为石墨核心,有利于提高抗衰退性能;Sb具有细化石墨球、增加石墨球数、提高石墨圆整度的作用;在厚大断面球铁中,晶界上Ti的偏析和球化元素Mg或稀土等氧化形成的氧化夹杂,破坏了奥氏体壳的稳定性,造成石墨畸变。