Determination of friction law in metal forming under oil-lubricated condition

Frictional behaviour under oil-lubricated conditions is studied in compression of a steel sheet by a DLC coated tool. The average frictional stress increases linearly with the average pressure first, then decreases and finally increases linearly again. This tendency is not affected by the lubricant viscosity, lubricant thickness and the stress state of the specimen. It is concluded that the decrease of the frictional stress with increasing average pressure is due to the decrease of the ratio of real contact area, which is caused by the lubricant pressure in closed pools. A new law of friction under oil-lubricated condition is proposed.     

Mechanism investigation of friction-related effects in single point incremental forming using a developed oblique roller-ball tool

Single point incremental forming (SPIF) is a highly versatile and flexible process for rapid manufacturing of complex sheet metal parts. In the SPIF process, a ball nose tool moves along a predefined tool path to form the sheet to desired shapes. Due to its unique ability in local deformation of sheet metal, the friction condition between the tool and sheet plays a significant role in material deformation. The effects of friction on surface finish, forming load, material deformation and formability are studied using a newly developed oblique roller ball (ORB) tool. Four grades of aluminum sheet including AA1100, AA2024, AA5052 and AA6111 are employed in the experiments. The material deformation under both the ORB tool and conventional rigid tool are studied by drilling a small hole in the sheet. The experimental results suggest that by reducing the friction resistance using the ORB tool, better surface quality, reduced forming load, smaller through-the-thickness-shear and higher formability can be achieved. To obtain a better understanding of the frictional effect, an analytical model is developed based on the analysis of the stress state in the SPIF deformation zone. Using the developed model, an explicit relationship between the stress state and forming parameters is established. The experimental observations are in good agreement with the developed model. The model can also be used to explain two contrary effects of friction and corresponding through-the-thickness-shear: increase of friction would potentially enhance the forming stability and suppress the necking; however, increase of friction would also increase the stress triaxiality and decrease the formability. The final role of the friction effect depends on the significance of each effect in SPIF process.     

平面精压长矩形板模具表面形状的解析模型

应用平面精压工序精压长矩形板时,若将平面精压模具的表面制造成微凸面形状,则平面精压时,刚好使模具表面变形成平面,使工件获得平整的表面。根据翁克索夫等人提出的镦粗时接触面上的摩擦切应力分布规律,分析了长矩形板平面精压时,接触面上摩擦切应力按线性分布摩擦定律情况下工件与模具的变形。利用主应力法求出接触面上的分布压应力,导出了平面精压长矩形板模具表面微凸面形状的解析公式。     

金属成型过程中摩擦成因的分析

本文从微观入手对金属压力成型过程中摩擦的形成原因进行了分析 ,认为摩擦主要是由于被压入工具表面凹坑金属的塑性流动所引起的。摩擦功率等于此部分金属的变形功率 ,当它的变形功率大于在界面产生剪切流动的功率时 ,摩擦由滑动摩擦转变为粘着摩擦。同时 ,根据对工具表面的某些假设 ,推导了摩擦应力与粗糙度和静水压应力等之间的关系 ,并求出了发生粘着摩擦所需的静水压应力。计算结果表明 ,建立的摩擦模型是比较有效和合乎实际的 ,它为理论计算摩擦提供了方法     

Analysis of surface topography changes in steel sheet strips during bending under tension friction test

In order to investigate the frictional behaviour and the change in surface roughness of different sheet topographies, a bending under tension friction test, BUT, was used. This test exposes the material to bulk-plastic deformation under conditions similar to those present in the drawing radius of a real tool. Each steel sheet material has been tested under different lubrication conditions. To measure the sheet surface topography a 3D stylus technique was used.For each steel strip the original surface, the area in contact with the tool and the resulting surface topography were measured. When comparing “standard” 3D surface roughness data for original and final surfaces, no correlation with friction data was obtained. However, with a special evaluation technique good correlation with oil retention volume and frictional behaviour was found for the surface in contact with the tool. By using measurements from the contact area, filtering the measured surface in two steps, firstly with a 5th degree polynom to get rid of the circular form and secondly with a ball filter to get rid of the waviness located in the topmost layer in the surface and then plotting the bearing area curve for the filtered surface on a probability paper, the real area of contact for each steel sheet surface can be determined, as well as the number of oil pockets and their mean area. The oil pockets were estimated by using a software in which areas of peaks were estimated, on a surface inverted at the level of the real area of contact.By plotting the mean area of the oil pockets versus the coefficient of friction for a sheet material with an excess amount of lubricant, a relationship is determined.     

Determination of stress distribution on the tool rake face using a composite tool

A composite tool method for the determination of the stress distribution on the tool rake face is proposed. This technique overcomes some of the inherent problems associated with the split tool method. It is found that the stress distributions advocated by Zorev need to be re-examined. In some cases the normal stress may not be exponential but shows a flattened zone along the curve. Also, the frictional stress does not remain constant all the way to the tool edge but rises in its proximity. Experimental verification confirmed that the chip-tool contact and sticking lengths can be deduced from the frictional stress results.     

Interface friction and deformation kinematics in metal compression with sticking friction

Friction at the die-metal interface results in nonuniform deformation in metal compression. With sticking friction, the plastic flow mechanism becomes extremely complex, and the force and energy requirements are higher compared to frictional compression. Earlier research, which had some limitations, enables evaluation of the forming load in metal compression involving sticking friction. In the present article, critical analysis has been made regarding frictional behavior at the real contact areas to propose a more realistic estimation of frictional constraints. For this purpose, available inferences in specific areas of metal forming, concerning fundamental concepts of friction and the influence of interface shear stress, bulk deformation, etc., on frictional behavior, have been used and modified as required. Also, a rational deformation kinematics has been proposed, assuming velocity discontinuity at every point within the flow field. The proposed estimation of friction and plastic flow kinematics yields results in line with the published experimental findings and the corresponding slip-line field solutions.     

考虑表面形貌的接触应力分析

目的 研究规则和实际表面形貌对二维平面线接触模型的影响.方法 基于线接触几何特性,考虑表面受载后的弹性变形特性,结合规则和实际粗糙表面的形貌特征,并考虑磨合对表面的影响,采用移动平均滤波方法对实际粗糙表面进行光滑处理,利用共轭梯度法,求解表面接触压力和摩擦力,计算二维平面内接触近场应力分布,同时采用修正的离散卷积快速傅里叶变换方法提高计算效率.对比验证二维接触模型的准确性,并对比规则和实际粗糙形貌表面受法向载荷和切向载荷时平面应力分布云图中的应力分布和大小.结果 圆面与圆形微凸体接触时,圆形凸体半径越小,最大Mises应力值越大,半径增大,最大Mises应力减小.多个圆形微凸体及正弦微凸体对应力分布影响类似.当考虑切向力时,会对应力分布云图中的应力分布形状和大小产生巨大影响.在相同平面表面形貌时,摩擦系数越大,Mises应力越大,并且应力沿摩擦力方向发生偏移.结论 数值模型能准确计算出粗糙平面的应力.当圆面与规则表面轮廓平面接触时,与光滑表面接触时相比,Mises应力分布呈现很大不同,微凸体越小,应力越集中;摩擦力会使接触压力和近场Mises应力产生偏移,摩擦系数越大,偏移越明显.当考虑实际粗糙表面时,在粗糙界面尖端接触区域产生应力集中.经过磨合表面采用平均滤波光滑处理后,粗糙界面尖端接触区域应力集中将大幅减小.     

金属板料塑性成形摩擦机理的力学模型探讨

本文从微观的角度简要地讨论了在金属板料塑性变形过程中 ,影响模具与金属板料表面的真实接触面积的因素是外力的大小、板料与模具表面的接触状态及板料的机械性能 (主要是屈服应力 )。指出在变形过程中 ,真实接触面积只占名义接触面积很小的一部分 ,并对板料与模具相对滑动时的摩擦力学模型进行了初步的探讨     

摩擦焊接过程数值模拟技术研究进展

根据摩擦焊接过程数值模拟存在的主要难点,重点介绍了摩擦焊接热输入、焊合区金属塑性变形、以及焊接过程主要参量场,如温度场、应力应变场有限元热力耦合分析的几种模型及其研究进展。文献研究表明,目前摩擦焊接过程物理参量场的数值模拟主要采用二维、非稳态、变物性模型。一般忽视辐射及对流换热。焊接界面上热流量可以根据扭矩曲线或摩擦系数分布曲线计算,热流分布采用均布或线性假设,近年来有关学者直接根据焊接材料的性能数据和设定的焊接规范参数进行摩擦焊接过程特征参量及相应物理参量场的模拟研究工作,并模拟了摩擦焊接过程的两种产热模型及其转化规律（摩擦初期的摩擦产热与摩擦后期的塑性变形产热）。     

Themo-elasto-viscoplastic modelling of friction stir welding

Abstract

A coupled two-dimensional Eulerian thermo-elasto-viscoplastic model has been developed for modelling the friction stir welding process. First, a coupled thermo-viscoplastic analysis is performed to determine the temperature distribution in the full domain and the incompressible material flow around the spinning tool. Next, an elasto-viscoplastic analysis is performed outside the viscoplastic region to compute the residual stress. Both frictional heat and plastic deformation heat generation are considered in the model. Furthermore, this is the only known model computing residual stress accounting for plasticity caused by both thermal expansion and mechanical deformation due to material spinning. The computed residual stress is verified by comparing to experimentally measured data.     

Microstructural alterations associated with friction drilling of steel,aluminum, and titanium

Friction drilling, also called thermal drilling, is a novel sheet metal hole-making process. The process involves forcing a rotating, pointed tool through a sheet metal workpiece. The frictional heating at the interface between the tool and workpiece enables the softening, deformation, and displacement of work-material and creates a bushing surrounding the hole without generating chip or waste material. The bushing can be threaded and provides the structural support for joining devices to the sheet metal. The research characterizes the microstructures and indentation hardness changes in the friction drilling of carbon steel, alloy steel, aluminum, and titanium. It is shown that materials with different compositions and thermal properties affect the selection of friction drilling process parameters, the surface morphology of the bore, and the development of a highly deformed layer adjacent to the bore surface.     

The influence of friction models on finite element simulations of machining

In the analysis of orthogonal cutting process using finite element (FE) simulations, predictions are greatly influenced by two major factors; a) flow stress characteristics of work material at cutting regimes and b) friction characteristics mainly at the tool-chip interface. The uncertainty of work material flow stress upon FE simulations may be low when there is a constitutive model for work material that is obtained empirically from high-strain rate and temperature deformation tests. However, the difficulty arises when one needs to implement accurate friction models for cutting simulations using a particular FE formulation. In this study, an updated Lagrangian finite element formulation is used to simulate continuous chip formation process in orthogonal cutting of low carbon free-cutting steel. Experimentally measured stress distributions on the tool rake face are utilized in developing several different friction models. The effects of tool-chip interfacial friction models on the FE simulations are investigated. The comparison results depict that the friction modeling at the tool-chip interface has significant influence on the FE simulations of machining. Specifically, variable friction models that are developed from the experimentally measured normal and frictional stresses at the tool rake face resulted in most favorable predictions. Predictions presented in this work also justify that the FE simulation technique used for orthogonal cutting process can be an accurate and viable analysis as long as flow stress behavior of the work material is valid at the machining regimes and the friction characteristics at the tool-chip interface is modeled properly.     

表面织构及供油量对润滑性能影响的建模分析

目的研究不同供油条件下织构表面的润滑性能。方法首先,建立考虑表面织构的乏油润滑模型,求解修正雷诺方程获得乏油工况下考虑织构表面的润滑油膜厚度以及压力分布。然后,依据求得的润滑油膜厚度判断计算域内各点润滑状态,通过接触压力及油膜厚度分别计算边界润滑、混合润滑以及流体润滑状态下的切应力,并积分求得摩擦力进而得到摩擦系数。结果模拟了供油层厚度为50~500 nm以及充分供油条件下三种织构的润滑行为,获得了不同润滑状态下表面织构的摩擦系数。速度为0.1 m/s时,供油量对接触区油膜厚度的影响较小,不同润滑状态下织构表现出不同的润滑性能。速度为0.2 m/s时,供油层厚度对油膜厚度的影响较大,随着供油层厚度的增大,膜厚明显增加,摩擦系数在供油层厚度为200 nm时最小。结论接触副处于流体润滑状态时,织构表面不具有减摩效果。接触副处于边界润滑状态时,织构表面具有减摩效果,并且织构较密时,摩擦系数较小。接触副处于混合润滑状态时,织构过于稀疏或密集时均不具有减摩效果,但是合理分布的织构具有减摩效果。     

A friction model for cold forging of aluminum, steel and stainless steel provided with conversion coating and solid film lubricant

Adopting a simulative tribology test system for cold forging the friction stress for aluminum, steel and stainless steel provided with typical lubricants for cold forging has been determined for varying normal pressure, surface expansion, sliding length and tool/work piece interface temperature. The results show, that friction is strongly influenced by normal pressure and tool/work piece interface temperature, whereas the other process parameters investigated show minor influence on friction. Based on the experimental results a mathematical model has been established for friction as a function of normal pressure and tool/work piece interface temperature. The model is verified by process testing measuring friction at varying reduction in cold forward rod extrusion.     

Textured surfaces for deep drawing tools by rolling

In this paper, macroscopic textured tool surfaces manufactured by rolling are investigated. Focus is on selective adjustment of friction by local texturing of tool areas to influence the material flow during deep drawing operations. Flat strip drawing tests were performed using friction elements with open textures. The texturing influences the friction conditions and affects the material properties of the stripes. The use of these surfaces results in a significant increase in friction, which allows an additional control of the material flow during sheet drawing operations. The main mechanisms for increased drawing forces are elastic deformation near the area of the texture and local plastic deformation on the sheet surface. Using strips made of mild steel, the texturing leads to an increased roughness of the sheet metal surface and, in the case of high surface pressure, to plastic deformations of the strips. Compared to conventional measures like draw beads, rolled-textured surfaces allow to retard the material flow during sheet drawing operation without excessive strain hardening in the sheet material.     

Mechanism investigation for the influence of tool rotation and laser surface texturing (LST) on formability in single point incremental forming

Single point incremental forming (SPIF) is a new sheet metal forming process which achieves higher formability, greater process flexibility and reduced forming force compared to conventional sheet forming operations due to its characteristic of localized deformation. In recent years, a novel SPIF process assisted by localized friction heat is developed to further improve the material formability. Physically, the frictional heat is generated by the high relative motion at tool–workpiece interface resulted from tool rotation. However, the mechanisms behind formability difference induced by tool rotation at both low and high speed ranges are required to investigate in detail. In this paper, a series of experiments with an increase of tool rotation speeds ranging from 0 to 7000 rpm are conducted to form AA5052-H32 aluminum alloy sheets into a truncated funnel. Additionally, the obtained results are analyzed in terms of formability, forming forces and temperature trends to find out the different roles of friction and heat during the forming process. As a result, the formability behaviors at varying tool rotation speeds can be categorized into four stages according to different reasons. It indicates that friction is the dominant factor in low tool rotation speed range (0–1000 rpm) but will be substituted by thermal effect and potential dynamic recrystallization in high tool rotation speed range (2000–7000 rpm). Furthermore, due to the proved lubrication enhancement and hydrodynamic enhancement generated by surface textures, a laser surface textured forming tool is also utilized to show its influence on forming forces, measured temperatures and the corresponding formability. Finally, it demonstrates that the fabricated laser surface texturing (LST) is capable to reduce the friction at tool–workpiece interface and change the magnitude of heat generation.     

Theoretical and experimental investigation of the frictional behavior of the tool–chip interface in ultrasonic-vibration assisted turning

The frictional behavior of the tool–chip interface has a significant role in the cutting mechanics. The frictional and normal forces, the contact length between the cutting tool and chip, the coefficient of friction and the stress distribution are the influential parameters. The behavior of the tool–chip interface in ultrasonic-vibration assisted cutting is different from conventional cutting and needs to be investigated. The ultrasonic-vibration assisted cutting has several advantages compared with conventional process. In the present study a frictional model has been developed for studying the above mentioned parameters and predicting the tool–chip behavior in ultrasonic-vibration assisted turning at different cutting speeds and vibration amplitudes. The results have been verified by experiments.     

Determination of flow factors for the semi-analytical prediction of friction coefficients

Friction conditions in sheet metal forming are mainly influenced by the surface topography of blank and tool, its mechanical properties and the properties of the intermediate medium, the lubricant. Aiming towards an analytical determination of friction coefficients for sheet metal forming, such factors should be included in suitable models and be weighted accordingly. In addition to the elastic–plastic deformation of the surface topography of the blank as a result of increasing nominal surface pressure, the influence of the lubricant can be considered using the Reynolds equation. In the present investigation, the flow factors of the elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication and mixed friction, which take into account the effects of surface topography and orientation, were calculated as a function of nominal surface pressure and nominal contact area in terms of plastically deformed surfaces. Asperity deformation is evaluated with a numerical contact model using the flow curve of base metal to calculate local contact forces.     

Structure-Property Correlation of AA2014 Friction Stir Welds: Role of Tool Pin Profile

The influence of rapid plastic deformation in the generation of welding heat during friction stir welding (FSW), supplementing the frictional heat generation by the tool shoulder, forms the thrust of the present investigation. Several researchers have highlighted the role of tool shoulder in the generation of frictional heat and suggested that the tool-material interface friction as the sole mechanism for heating. The configuration of tool pin profile is seldom studied for its contribution to welding heat through rapid plastic deformation at high strain rates (10³/s), especially while welding thick plates. An attempt has been made to understand the dependence of deformation heat generation with different tool pin profiles in welding 5 mm thick AA2014-T6 aluminum alloy, maintaining the same swept volume during the tool rotation. An attempt has also been made to correlate the influence of process response variables such as force and torque acting on the tool pin. To quantify the physical influence of tool pin profile, temperature measurements were made in the region adjacent to the rotating pin, close to nugget in the thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ). It has been observed that the temperature rises at a relatively rapid rate in the case of hexagonal tool pin compared to the welds produced employing other tool pin profiles. It is observed that during FSW, extensive deformation experienced at the nugget zone and the evolved microstructure strongly influences the mechanical properties of the joint. The present study is also aimed at understanding the influence of tool profile on the microstructural changes and the associated mechanical properties. Transverse tensile samples failed at the nugget/TMAZ boundary due to localized softening. Hexagonal tool pin profile welds have shown higher tensile strength, low TMAZ width, and high nugget hardness compared to other tool pin profile welds.