Global hydrogen development - A technological and geopolitical overview

Hydrogen is an energy carrier that will certainly make an important and decisive contribution to the global energy transition and lead to a significant reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions over the coming decades. It is estimated that 60% of GHG emission reductions in the last phase of the energy transition could come from renewables, green hydrogen and electrification based on green energy development. Coordinated efforts by governments, industry and investors, as well as substantial investment in the energy sector, will be required to develop the hydrogen value chain on a global scale. This paper summarizes the technical and technological advances involved in the production, purification, compression, transportation and use of hydrogen. We also describe the roadmaps and strategies that have been developed in recent years in different countries for large-scale hydrogen production.     

Exploring supply chain design and expansion planning of China's green ammonia production with an optimization-based simulation approach

Green ammonia production as an important application for propelling the upcoming hydrogen economy has not been paid much attention by China, the world's largest ammonia producer. As a result, related studies are limited. This paper explores potential supply chain design and planning strategies of green ammonia production in the next decade of China with a case study in Inner Mongolia. A hybrid optimization-based simulation approach is applied, considering traditional optimization approaches are insufficient to address uncertainties and dynamics in a long-term energy transition. Results show that the production cost of green ammonia will be at least twice that of the current level due to higher costs of hydrogen supply. Production accounts for the largest share of the total expense of green hydrogen (~80 %). The decline of electricity and electrolyser prices are key in driving down the overall costs. In addition, by-product oxygen is also considered in the model to assess its economic benefits. We found that by-product oxygen sales could partly reduce the total expense of green hydrogen (~12 % at a price of USD 85/t), but it also should be noted that the volatile price of oxygen may pose uncertainties and risks to the effectiveness of the offset. Since the case study may represent the favourable conditions in China due to the abundant renewable energy resources and large-scale ammonia industry in this region, we propose to take a moderate step towards green ammonia production, and policies should be focused on reducing the electricity price and capital investments in green hydrogen production. We assume the findings and implications are informative to planning future green ammonia production in China.     

氢能产业链及氢能发电利用技术现状及展望

  目的  随着“碳达峰、碳中和”目标的提出和能源改革的日益深入,氢能作为重要的工业原料和能源燃料在近年来得到广泛关注并进入快速发展时期。氢能产业链主要包含氢气的制备、储存、运输、利用等环节,涉及众多产业交叉融合与技术创新,文章旨在梳理氢能产业链现状并分析各节点面临的挑战,为今后的氢能产业发展提供建议。  方法  对现有氢能产业链各节点涉及的技术现状开展调研,分析其面临的问题与挑战,并提出相应建议。  结果  研究发现:虽然我国在氢能产业所涉及的各方面均有一定技术储备及产业布局,但仍然面临较多的技术短板有待突破。其中,碱性电解水技术、高压储氢技术、天然气管道掺氢输送技术等已经初步具备应用条件,适合开展示范项目。而低温液氢技术、质子交换膜制氢和燃料电池技术、固体氧化物制氢和燃料电池技术仍存在部分难题,有待进一步突破。同时,我国的掺氢燃机发展较为落后,与国际先进水平存在较大差异。  结论  因此,氢能作为战略能源,其开发利用有助于促进我国能源与产业的绿色转型,但仍然面临诸多问题,需要合理布局,避免重复建设和低端技术的引进,才能保持氢能产业的又好又快发展。     

Reducing CO2 emissions in the iron industry with green hydrogen

The different methods of producing Green Hydrogen have been discussed in detail in this article. The implications and significance of employing green hydrogen in the steel and iron industries have been brought to light. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) is a significant environmental gas pollutant which is released in large quantities by steel mills and other industrial facilities. It is hoped that the appropriate measures would be taken to minimize the emission of hazardous gases, such as CO₂, from each facility. The green hydrogen idea is a new technology that is being used as an alternative energy source for the sectors listed above. The most important step in reducing CO₂ emissions is to collect it and store it in a secure location. In this article, the main goal and scope is to analyse various methodologies to minimize CO₂ emissions in Iron and Steel Industries as well as compare with noble green hydrogen technology. Here, the state of art for the emission of CO₂ as well as the recommendations of Green Hydrogen Technology are emphasized which is the novelty of this article.     

Prospects for the production of green hydrogen: Review of countries with high potential

The article provides a review of the current hydrogen production and the prospects for the development of the production of “green” hydrogen using renewable energy sources in various countries of the world that are leaders in this field. The potential of hydrogen energy in such countries and regions as Australia, the European Union, India, Canada, China, the Russian Federation, United States of America, South Korea, the Republic of South Africa, Japan and the northern countries of Africa is considered. These countries have significant potential for the production of hydrogen and “green” hydrogen, in particular through mining of fossil fuels and the use of renewable energy sources. The quantitative indicators of the production of “green” hydrogen in the future and the direction of its export are considered; the most developed hydrogen technologies in these countries are presented. The production of “green” hydrogen in most countries is the way to transition from the consumption of fossil fuels to the clean energy of the future, which will significantly improve the environmental situation, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve the energy independence of the regions.     

A patent analysis on advanced biohydrogen technology development and commercialisation: Scope and competitiveness

The need of developing renewable energy to reduce the impact on the global environment and climate change of the increasing industrial development has fostered the use of biological processes to produce biofuel from biohydrogen. The present work made a patent analysis of advanced hydrogen production techniques comparing it with similar prior art in China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the European Union and the United States (U.S.) The aims were to find the scope, competitiveness of prior art, as well as the technology trend on biohydrogen production methods. The patents value was assessed its geographic scope and competitiveness indicators such as green image, low cost, energy efficiency and equipment design. It was found that most of the hydrogen production methods and associated technologies are developed by academic institutions, however their patents are reduced to a local level, and few are patented at international level, which reduces their competitiveness. The China (P.R.C.) is the biggest patent contributor worldwide in terms of hydrogen production methods by academic institutions. Japan is a huge patent contributor, in terms of methods aiming rear-end products application of hydrogen by private companies. The biggest amount of prior art found that the most popular methods of pre-treatment and dark fermentation produced coincide with the time of energetic crisis and the green movement to find alternative fuels. Finally, patent analysis of this study can help to discern the current technology trend and to develop the next generation of biohydrogen processes and associated technologies.     

A systematic review on green hydrogen for off-grid communities –technologies,advantages, and limitations

Approximately 3.5 billion people worldwide lack reliable and sustainable energy services, mostly in poor off-grid areas of developing countries. Variable renewable energies are options for these communities. However, their high intermittence and complex storage limit their benefits. Green hydrogen research has advanced significantly to the point that some scholars consider it the future's clean energy solution. Multiple applications within the transport, electricity and storage sectors have been envisaged. However, little has been discussed about its potential to provide affordable, dependable, and sustainable energy for the world's poorest. This paper addresses this gap by analyzing the literature on green hydrogen research, its technologies, and its potential implementation in off-grid communities. First, a quantitative bibliometric approach is developed to size and make sense of the green hydrogen research literature. Then, an in-depth review is performed following Dawood et al.'s four-corners framework, categorizing hydrogen research into production, storage, use, and safety. This systematic review unveils green hydrogen's most promising technologies for off-grid applications. It identifies their advantages, limitations, and barriers to widespread dissemination. Thus, this study's primary contributions lie in determining the relationship between published works and identifying gaps in considering green hydrogen as a viable energy alternative for the poor.     

Collaborate,involve, or defend? A critical stakeholder assessment and strategy for the Danish hydrogen electrolysis industry

Denmark's national energy strategy for 2050 calls explicitly for the use of hydrogen to store excess electricity from intermittent wind farms. However, the Danish hydrogen electrolysis industry lacks full knowledge of its stakeholders and business prerequisites needed to achieve its aims. To fill this gap, this study identifies the stakeholders in the Danish energy and electricity industry to find how both industries may benefit from cooperating with each other. The research has been conducted using a newly constructed model for determination of relevant stakeholders, based on their technological and commercial influence on the project. Qualitative interviews are an important part of the model, and have been performed with stakeholders in both industries. The research revealed which stakeholders that were affected and could affect the Danish hydrogen industry both as complementors and competitors. However, we conclude that major uncertainties relate to (1) political decision making, (2) maturity of technologies, (3) stakeholder incentive structures. This study highlights both the complexity and dynamics of a fossil free society especially related to the relationship between technological maturity and stakeholders' choice of strategic action.     

Sustainable hydrogen society – Vision,findings and development of a hydrogen economy using the example of Austria

Based on technical, environmental, economic and social facts and recent findings, the feasibility of the transition from our current fossil age to the new green age is analyzed in detail at both global and local level. To avert the threats of health problems, environmental pollution and climate change to our quality and standard of life, a twofold radical paradigm shift is outlined: Green Energy Revolution means the complete change from fossil-based to green primary energy sources such as sun, wind, water, environmental heat, and biomass; Green Hydrogen Society means the complete change from fossil-based final energy to green electricity and green hydrogen in all areas of mobility, industries, households and energy services. Renewable energies offer a green future and are in combination with electrochemical machines such as electrolysers, batteries and fuel cells able to achieve higher efficiencies and zero emissions.     

Building the green hydrogen market – Current state and outlook on green hydrogen demand and electrolyzer manufacturing

Over the past two years, requirements to meet climate targets have been intensified. In addition to the tightening of the climate targets and the demand for net-zero achievement by as early as 2045, there have been discussions on implementing and realizing these goals. Hydrogen has emerged as a promising climate-neutral energy carrier. Thus, over the last 1.5 years, more than 25 countries have published hydrogen roadmaps. Furthermore, various studies by different authorities have been released to support the development of a hydrogen economy. This paper examines published studies and hydrogen country roadmaps as part of a meta-analysis. Furthermore, a market analysis of electrolyzer manufacturers is conducted. The prospected demand for green hydrogen from various studies is compared to electrolyzer manufacturing capacities and selected green hydrogen projects to identify potential market ramp-up scenarios, and to evaluate if green hydrogen demand forecasts can be filled.     

Utilization of green ammonia as a hydrogen energy carrier for decarbonization in spark ignition engines

Rising concerns about the dependence of modern energy systems on fossil fuels have raised the requirement for green alternate fuels to pave the roadmap for a sustainable energy future with a carbon-free economy. Massive expectations of hydrogen as an enabler for decarbonization of the energy sector are limited by the lack of required infrastructure, whose implementation is affected by the issues related to the storage and distribution of hydrogen energy. Ammonia is an effective hydrogen energy carrier with a well-established and mature infrastructure for long-distance transportation and distribution. The possibility for green ammonia production from renewable energy sources has made it a suitable green alternate fuel for the decarbonization of the automotive and power generation sectors. In this work, engine characteristics for ammonia combustion in spark ignition engines have been reported with a detailed note on engines fuelled with pure ammonia as well as blends of ammonia with gasoline, hydrogen, and methane. Higher auto-ignition temperature, low flammability, and lower flame speed of ammonia have a detrimental effect on engine characteristics, and it could be addressed either by incorporating engine modifications or by enhancing the fuel quality. Literature shows that the increase in compression ratio from 9.4:1 to 11.5:1 improved the maximum power by 59% and the addition of 10% hydrogen in supercharged conditions improved the indicated efficiency by 37%. Challenges and strategies for the utilization of ammonia as combustible fuel in engines are discussed by considering the need for technical advancements as well as social acceptance. Energy efficiency for green ammonia production is also discussed with a due note on techniques for direct synthesis of ammonia from air and water.     

A review of performance and emissions of diesel engine operating on dual fuel mode with hydrogen as gaseous fuel

The urge for cleaner and greener sources of energy is rising day by day. Developed countries are already in process of shifting their energy needs from conventional sources to non-conventional/renewable/green sources of energy. These developed countries are also trying to incorporate developing countries to join the battle against global warming and pollution. Examples, of some non-conventional sources of energy are nuclear energy, wind energy etc. One of such cleaner energy source is hydrogen. The high calorific value, availability in abundance and cleaner nature of hydrogen makes it an appropriate substitute for conventional source of energy. An engine using gaseous hydrogen is in the process of being developed. This may revolutionize the battle against pollution and global warming. Use of hydrogen in a diesel engine working on dual-fuel mode has been the interest of many researchers. However utilization of hydrogen fuel changes the ignition delay, combustion duration, peak mean temperature, peak pressure and other combustion parameters change. In the present work, such research works are examined and analyzed in detail. It is also shown, amount of inducted hydrogen dictates many engine parameters such as engine power, torque etc. a separate section is dedicated to study different emissions from the improvised engine. Lastly, it will be clear from the discussion that introduction of gaseous hydrogen to a diesel engine working on dual fuel mode will have optimistic effect on environment.     

Dynamic planning,conversion, and management strategy of different renewable energy sources: A Sustainable Solution for Severe Energy Crises in Emerging Economies

Green hydrogen energy is a natural substitute for fuel-based energy and it increases a country's long-term energy safety. Pakistan has been a victim of a severe energy crisis for the past few decades. In this context, this research addresses green hydrogen generation and renewable energy supply (i.e., wind, solar, biomass, public waste, geothermal and small hydropower) as an alternate energy source in Pakistan. The assessment is carried out through a two-step framework (i.e., Fuzzy-AHP and non-parametric DEA). Results show that Pakistan has abundant renewable power capacity from wind, which the light-duty transport in the country can opt. Almost 4.89 billion gallons of fuel are consumed annually in Sindh, whereas Punjab uses up around 6.92 billion gallons of fuel annually, which need to be substituted with 1.63 billion kg and 2.31 billion kg of wind-produced hydrogen, respectively. It has been discovered that solar and wind energy attain the same criterion of weights (i.e., 0.070) in-line with the commercial potential criterion. Besides, wind-generated power is ideal for green hydrogen generation in Pakistan, and the subsequent choice for green hydrogen energy is small hydropower and solar, which are also good for green hydrogen generation in the country. Hence, this research offers a solid recommendation for the use of wind energy, which is ideal for the production of Green Hydrogen energy in the country.     

Green hydrogen standard in China: Standard and evaluation of low-carbon hydrogen,clean hydrogen,and renewable hydrogen

With the proposal of carbon neutral goals in various countries, the deepening of global action on climate change and the acceleration of green economy recovery in the post epidemic era, building a low-carbon and clean hydrogen supply system has gradually become a global consensus. In order to promote the development of clean hydrogen market, the standards of green hydrogen have been discussed at global level. The quantitative definition of different hydrogen production methods based on the greenhouse gases (GHG) emission of life cycle assessment (LCA) methods is gradually recognised by the industry. China issued the “Standard and evaluation of low-carbon hydrogen, clean hydrogen and renewable hydrogen” in December 2020. This is the first formal green hydrogen standard worldwide, which provides calculation methods for GHG of different hydrogen production paths. This chapter discusses the major green hydrogen standards initiative in the world, analyses the key factors of the global green hydrogen standard, and introduces how to establish the quantitative standards and evaluation system of low-carbon hydrogen, clean hydrogen, and renewable hydrogen by using the method in China.     

Hydrogen economy for sustainable development in GCC countries: A SWOT analysis considering current situation,challenges, and prospects

The increasingly serious threat of climate change caused by the excessive use of fossil fuels have been prompting GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) countries to aggressively seek a clean energy source in the future. Recently GCC countries announced their carbon emission targets e.g. Saudi Arabia & Bahrain's net-zero emissions by 2060, UAE and Oman net-zero emissions by 2050, Qatar 25% and Kuwait 7.4% reduction by 2035. In recent years, governments and energy companies across the world alike are placing large wagers on hydrogen, in an effort to lower emissions. Therefore, to achieve these long term stated emission targets of GCC countries, Hydrogen Economy is one of the areas where efforts must be ramped up. However, there are currently numerous obstacles to the scaled and to substitute the revenue of fossil fuel exports with green hydrogen economy in Gulf countries, such as high production costs of green hydrogen, a lack of infrastructure, storage and transportation problems, regulation and the necessary demand in the indigenous end-user sectors. The aim of this study is to analyze the existing obstacles and future prospects of hydrogen economy in GCC region using SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis approach. The results shows that GCC countries have the resources and opportunity to be a leader in hydrogen, but will need to take risks if it wants to compete globally. The uptake of hydrogen in short- and midterm will largely be based on blue hydrogen, however as it is expected a substantial fall green hydrogen production cost by 2030, it is therefore in the long term green hydrogen production offers the major route for the GCC, based on natural endowments. It is revealed that the scale and growth of the hydrogen economy in GCC countries will largely depend on external factors (i.e., global hydrogen adoption and demand) beyond their control.     

中欧应对气候变化和加强新能源合作的设想及对策建议

应对气候变化和发展新能源,将是中国与欧洲双方政治阻力较小、投资增速较快的合作领域。本文从宏观、中观和微观三个层面对中欧相关合作进行了分析。首先,把中欧应对气候变化和新能源合作的主要领域归结为三大类:产业绿色化、能源绿色化和资源绿色化,为全面了解中欧合作提供了一个较宏观的视角。进而,对中国与欧洲主要国家的合作进行了探讨,发现中国与英、法、德的合作重点分别是低碳技术、核电站和新能源汽车,这是一个相对中观的分析。然后,以电动汽车为例,对中欧合作进行了较微观的剖析。最后,提出了深入推动中欧合作的几点政策建议。     

Simulation of hydrogen leak and explosion for the safety design of hydrogen fueling station in Korea

Hydrogen has been used as chemicals and fuels in industries for last decades. Recently, it has become attractive as one of promising green energy candidates in the era of facing with two critical energy issues such as accelerating deterioration of global environment (e.g. carbon dioxide emissions) as well as concerns on the depletion of limited fossil sources. A number of hydrogen fueling stations are under construction to fuel hydrogen-driven vehicles. It would be indispensable to ensure the safety of hydrogen station equipment and operating procedure in order to prevent any leak and explosions of hydrogen: safe design of facilities at hydrogen fueling stations e.g. pressurized hydrogen leak from storage tanks. Several researches have centered on the behaviors of hydrogen ejecting out of a set of holes of pressurized storage tanks or pipes. This work focuses on the 3D simulation of hydrogen leak scenario cases at a hydrogen fueling station, given conditions of a set of pressures, 100, 200, 300, 400 bar and a set of hydrogen ejecting hole sizes, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0 mm, using a commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tool, FLACS. The simulation is based on real 3D geometrical configuration of a hydrogen fueling station that is being commercially operated in Korea. The simulation results are validated with hydrogen jet experimental data to examine the diffusion behavior of leak hydrogen jet stream. Finally, a set of marginal safe configurations of fueling facility system are presented, together with an analysis of distribution characteristics of blast pressure, directionality of explosion. This work can contribute to marginal hydrogen safety design for hydrogen fueling stations and a foundation on establishing a safety distance standard required to protect from hydrogen explosion in Korea being in the absence of such an official requirement.     

A review and prospects of gas mixture containing hydrogen as vehicle fuel in China

Nowadays, the environmental problems caused by the burning of fossil fuels as vehicle fuel have become more and more serious in the world. Many countries are carrying out the research on the alternative energy sources and the clean energy. Meanwhile, China has begun to focus on the development of the gas mixture containing hydrogen as the vehicle fuel, mainly hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas (HCNG) and coke oven gas (COG). Application status of HCNG and COG as the vehicle fuel in China were reviewed and their existing problems were analyzed. The analysis results shows that the relevant regulations standards of HCNG vehicle, COG vehicle and their refueling stations have not been formulated and unified yet and the optimal hydrogen ratio of the HCNG requires further experimental investigation and theoretical analysis. In addition, as a country with substantial COG wasted, China can make better use of the wasted hydrogen contained in COG to realize the miniaturization and closed production of the COG without pollution. HCNG and COG as vehicle fuel are beneficial for the development of the hydrogen energy, which can alleviate the crisis of global energy shortage and effectively reduce the production and emission of sulfur oxides. Therefore, the prospects of HCNG and COG as the vehicle fuel are good in China.     

Review of hydrogen economy in Malaysia and its way forward

Heavy fossil fuels consumption has raised concerns over the energy security and climate change while hydrogen is regarded as the fuel of future to decarbonize global energy use. Hydrogen is commonly used as feedstocks in chemical industries and has a wide range of energy applications such as vehicle fuel, boiler fuel, and energy storage. However, the development of hydrogen energy in Malaysia is sluggish despite the predefined targets in hydrogen roadmap. This paper aims to study the future directions of hydrogen economy in Malaysia considering a variety of hydrogen applications. The potential approaches for hydrogen production, storage, distribution and application in Malaysia have been reviewed and the challenges of hydrogen economy are discussed. A conceptual framework for the accomplishment of hydrogen economy has been proposed where renewable hydrogen could penetrate Malaysia market in three phases. In the first phase, the market should aim to utilize the hydrogen as feedstock for chemical industries. Once the hydrogen production side is matured in the second phase, hydrogen should be used as fuel in internal combustion engines or burners. In the final phase hydrogen should be used as fuel for automobiles (using fuel cell), fuel-cell combined heat and power (CHP) and as energy storage.     

A thorough investigation for development of hydrogen projects from wind energy: A case study

Increasing energy demand has led to a substantial growth in the use of wind energy across the world, which can be attributed to the low initial and running costs and rapid and easy deployment of this technology. The development of hydrogen from wind energy is an excellent way to store the excess wind power produced, as the produced hydrogen can be used not only as clean fuel but also as input for various industries. Considering the good wind potentials of Yazd province, the variety of industries that are active in this area, and the central location of this province in Iran, which gives it ample access to major transport routes and other industrial hubs, hydrogen production from wind power in this province could benefit not only this region but the entire country. Given these considerations, we conducted a technical, economic, and environmental assessment of the potential for wind power generation and hydrogen production in Yazd province. Overall, the assessments showed that the best locations for harvesting wind energy in this province are Bahabad and Halvan stations. For these two stations, it is recommended to use EWT DW 52-900 turbine to take advantage of its higher nominal capacity to achieve higher electricity and hydrogen output and emission reduction. For Abarkoh and Kerit stations, which have a low wind energy potential, it is recommended to use small turbines such as Eovent EVA120 H-Darrieus. Also, economic and technical assessments showed that it is not economically justified to harvest wind energy in Ardakan station. The results of ranking the stations with the Step-wise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) and Evaluation based on Distance from Average Solution (EDAS) techniques showed that Bahabad station was introduced as the best place to produce hydrogen from wind energy.