基于通勤特征的深圳市城中村职住关系研究

本文选取深圳市14个居住型城中村作 为案例,基于手机信令数据分析城中村的通勤特 征,探讨其与就业的职住关系模式。研究发现, 城中村的通勤特征呈现出了显著的区位差异性： 从通勤距离看,城边村最长,城内村次之,城外 村最短;从通勤方向看,城内村和区位条件较好 的城边村具有较强的市中心指向,而城外村的 通勤多局限于外围区。结合深圳的就业空间布局 特征,研究归纳了不同区位城中村的职住关系模 式,分析职住空间错配的表现,进而提出优化职 住空间格局的政策建议,包括针对不同区位的城 中村制定差异化的空间引导政策,以及在城市中 心区外培育非工业类就业中心等。     

Agglomeration and relocation: Manufacturing plant relocation in Korea

This study investigates the magnitude of localization economies by analysing the relocation pattern of Korean establishments in the manufacturing sector. Relocation of establishments is identified by their move across the border of wards, counties, or cities and distinguished between beyond and within their workers' commuting distance. It seems that relocation beyond commuting distance costs more than that within commuting distance since the former includes additional costs related with searching for, hiring, and training new workers. Key findings of this paper show that external benefits from agglomeration are large enough to be recognized by manufacturers through relocation beyond the border of their workers' commuting area. When the own industry's share of employment in all manufacturing industries becomes doubled through relocation, the probability for establishments to relocate over a long distance across the boundary of their workers' commuting area rises by 17 per cent. The results for sub‐samples divided by the age of establishments show that older establishments are more likely to relocate over a long distance to an area with disproportionate presence of establishments in the same industry. These results seem to fit product life cycle theory by Duranton and Puga. As the production process of the product becomes standardized, the firms producing that product tend to relocate to the specialized area where they can reduce the production costs by increasing dependence on the existing intermediate input suppliers, who are more likely to appear in a more specialized area.     

Development of Suburban New Towns in Shanghai: Jobs-Housing Spatial Relationship Analysis

This paper identifies the employment and housing locations of residents in Shanghai based on mobile phone signaling data, so as to obtain the employment density and commuting data and analyze the development of nine suburban new towns from the perspective of jobs-housing spatial relationship. Firstly, the paper defines employment-intensive areas and gets the average employment density of each new town according to the employment density data. Then it marks out the scope of the employment influence through analyzing the sources of workers in each new town in accordance with the commuting data. Finally, it analyzes the jobs-housing balance of each new town using independence index, finding that suburban new towns in Shanghai have become main clusters of economic activities, while the scope of employment influence in each new town is still concentrated in its administrative area, with less attraction to residents in other areas. The independence index demonstrates a law that the suburban new town which is farther from the central city sees a higher degree of jobs-housing balance. Among them, new towns located in the outer suburbs with a low independence index indicate their special development situation, the reason of which is worth further study.     

Overcoming Mismatch: Beyond Dispersal,Mobility, and Development Strategies

Since the 1960s, John Kain's theory of spatial mismatch has influenced policy responses to the poor employment prospects of low-income and minority residents of inner cities by aiming to connect them with suburban jobs. My literature review examines this policy legacy using what we now know about disadvantaged jobseekers' employment searches. Recent evaluations of poverty deconcentration and employment accessibility programs show that these programs have failed to improve employment outcomes significantly. However, using evidence from studies of job search and job training programs, I show that local activity patterns do shape employment chances. Planners trying to improve employment outcomes for the disadvantaged should focus on policies that will provide them with opportunities to interact with a diverse social network and meet workforce intermediaries capable of linking them with jobs.     

Neighbourhood ties and employment: a test of different hypotheses across neighbourhoods

Abstract

This study examines to which extent neighbourhood ties relate to employment status for the less-well educated inhabitants of 71 neighbourhoods in the Dutch city of Rotterdam. Previous research has produced different expectations as to whether having contact with neighbours is either positively or negatively related to being employed and how this relation differs across neighbourhoods. Two waves from the Neighbourhood Profile survey (N?=?8507) were used, which included measures of the contact frequency with neighbours and their willingness to help. We find that for the less-well educated neighbourhood ties have a modest negative relation to employment. Moreover, this relation does not vary across neighbourhoods with different socioeconomic statuses, with the exception of part-time working men. Our research implies that neighbourhood ties in mixed neighbourhoods do not positively relate to employment for the less-well educated, thereby questioning policy assumptions about ‘social mix’. Contributions to the field of neighbourhood studies are made by employing measures of the social networks mechanism and taking into account the conditionality of effects across neighbourhoods.     

Offering Incentives for New Development: The Role of City Social Status,Politics, and Local Growth Experiences

The propensity of municipal governments to offer incentives for new development is empirically examined, drawing upon both the literature on local economic development policy and studies of local residential restrictions. The data are from a 1998 mail survey of city managers in California in which officials assessed the likelihood that their local governments would offer financial assistance or zoning changes to various types of new business and residential land uses in their communities. Multivariate analysis indicates that local conditions resulting from past growth patterns—commuting times, job/population balance, and housing affordability—play an important role in shaping respondents’ assessments as to whether their cities are likely to grant incentives. Such factors deserve an important role in explaining local government growth orientations, alongside measures of community status, political institutions, and the strength of progrowth coalitions.     

基于通勤圈识别的大城市空间结构优化——以武汉市中心城区为例

研究通勤圈对于进一步认识大城市空间结构的运行特征和提升空间绩效具有重要作用。以武汉市为例,利用手机定位服务(LBS,location based service)数据识别武汉市中心城区主要通勤圈的空间分布;在对通勤圈的圈层结构、内部构成及外部形态进行测度的基础上,分析了基于通勤圈的通勤强度空间分布、大城市中心城区空间结构布局与运行特征之间的关联及其内在原因。研究发现,中心城区通勤圈空间分布呈以"通勤中心"为核心、相对集聚的"多中心"结构;通勤圈的内部结构呈圈层式扩张,且"飞地"和跨区通勤现象明显;随着通勤圈空间范围扩大,职住偏离指数、主要土地使用要素指标与交通环境要素指标均随之降低;通勤圈的大小和形态取决于其内部用地构成、用地混合度及通勤走廊主导交通方式的运送速度和效率;交通方式系统供给与基于通勤圈的3类通勤出行需求的"错位"布局降低了中心城区空间结构的运行绩效。在此基础上,提出了以准确识别通勤圈空间分布与内在结构为基础,优先完善中心城区内部交通系统组织、适度拓展中心城区跨通勤圈客流通道以逐步扩大通勤圈服务范围、审慎发展快速路系统的面向大城市空间运行绩效提升的优化策略。     

The emergence of city-regions and their implications for contemporary spatial governance: Evidence from Ghana

Over the years, urbanization has triggered complex spatial processes, such as the evolution of city-regions that defy traditional administrative regional boundaries. However, despite the growing body of research on city-regions, the evolution of this phenomenon and its implications for contemporary spatial governance remains a huge gap in urban planning literature, while approaches to their delineation have largely been restricted to commuting patterns data and approximations. This research examines the emergence of city-regions and their implications for contemporary spatial governance using Ghana as an illustrative case. In the process, inspired by Tobler's first law of geography and the concept of distance decay, the study engages a unique methodological approach that uses spatial mapping of rural-urban population continuum, transportation network, built-up patterns and GIS techniques for the delineation of city-region. The research finds a gap between the rapidly emerging spatial structure of Accra and the operational governance framework, as there is no provision in the latter for the planning and management of the evolving city-region which, territorially, spans multiple administrative regions. At the local context, while making the lagging spatial governance system more responsive to the dynamically evolving spatial structure, it is imperative that urban policy recognises city-regions, such as the Accra City Region (ACR), and their diverse opportunities; plan for them through joint development planning boards; and foster natural coordination even among local planning authorities across different administrative regions. At the global scale, the research practically illustrates that alternative methodologies based on spatial mapping and GIS techniques could provide useful insights into the study of city-regions.     

Verifying the Multi‐Dimensional Nature of Metropolitan Land Use: Advancing the Understanding and Measurement of Sprawl

Abstract: Twelve conceptually distinct dimensions of land use patterns are operationalized for 50 large US metropolitan areas using a battery of indices. Common patterns of variation in these indices across metropolitan areas are discerned using correlation and factor analyses. We find that: (1) seven principal components best summarize the dimensions of housing and employment land uses, (2) metro areas often exhibit both high and low levels of sprawl‐like patterns across the seven components, and (3) housing and employment aspects of sprawl‐like patterns differ in nature. Thus, land use patterns prove multi‐dimensional in both theory and practice. Exploratory analyses indicate: (1) little regional variation in land use patterns, (2) metro areas with larger populations are more dense/continuous with greater housing centrality and concentration of employment in the core, (3) older areas have higher degrees of housing concentration and employment in the core, (4) constrained areas evince greater density/continuity, and (5) inter‐metropolitan variations in several dimensions of land use patterns are not well explained by population, age, growth patterns, or topographical constraints on development. Results imply that policymakers must carefully unravel which land use dimension is causing undesirable outcomes, and then devise precise policy instruments to change only this dimension.     

Metropolitan spatial structure analysis based on the identification of commuting zones with Nanjing City as an example

Commuting zone research is critical to the understanding of the operational rules of the metropolitan spatial structure and improving spatial performance. This study aims to identify the main commuting centers and zones by using cellular data with Nanjing City as the example. This study analyzes the operational features of the internal spatial structures of the city from two dimensions by merging multi-source data, namely, commuting centers and zones, thus achieving an understanding of the existing problems with the urban spatial structures and their internal causes. Results showed that the commuting zones of Nanjing are distributed in a pattern of “multiple commuting centers”, with Xinjiekou–Hunan Road and Hongwu Road–Chaotiangong–Shuangtang as the core, Mochou Lake as the main commuting area, and Dongshan and Jiangpu as the secondary commuting zones. Significant differences and similarities are discovered in our comparisons along the two dimensions of commuting zones and centers in terms of spatial structural factors, such as land use, transportation, and commuting in the city. The similarity is shown as a common declining trend in the values of all our indicators with the increase in the distance of commuting zones from the city center. However, the differences are significant in terms of the clustering features of the various parameters concerning commuting centers and zones. Specifically, four clustering patterns are discovered, namely, “monocentric clustering”, “circular monocentric clustering”, “polycentric clustering”, and “sparsely dotted distribution”. This study sheds light on the existing problems with the city’s spatial structure and proposes some overall suggestions toward urban spatial structure improvement on the basis of these findings.     

‘A Fantasy to Get Employment Around the Area’: Long Commutes and Resident Health in an Outer Urban Master-Planned Estate

The Selandra Rise master-planned estate (MPE) in Melbourne’s south-east growth corridor was designed to create a “healthy and engaged community” through the provision of parks, physical activity opportunities and community facilities. A 5 year longitudinal study researched the impact on residents. Over one third of residents spent 2 to 3 h per day commuting and high levels of dissatisfaction with commutes were found. Longer commute times were associated with poor physical activity and weight outcomes. The paper concludes that provisions for health and wellbeing within an MPE are insufficient when opportunities for local employment are limited and broader locational, connectivity and transport disadvantages are not addressed.     

Land use regulation and intraregional population–employment interaction

Land use regulations often delay residential development processes and increase the development costs, although they contribute to addressing market failures and realizing a well-organized urban spatial structure. Raising barriers to development can prevent households from moving in response to either job relocations or job growth at certain locations in a timely manner through restrictions in the local housing supply. This situation may also result in longer commuting distances, times, and costs, as well as greater spatial mismatches. To examine the possible adverse effects of the regulations, this study analyzes how intraregional population–employment interactions vary across metropolitan areas that substantially differ in the restrictiveness of land use regulations. First, an exploratory correlation analysis of 40 large U.S. metropolitan areas reveals that highly regulated regions, particularly those with lengthy approval processes, are likely to show a lower correlation between census tract-level population and employment changes and an increase in mean commuting time between 1990 and 2000. Secondly, regression analysis suggests that the lower correlation in highly regulated metropolitan areas could be attributed to the limited responsiveness of the population to employment redistribution within the regions.     

How cities prepare for climate change: Comparing Hamburg and Rotterdam

This paper compares the different ways in which the cities of Hamburg and Rotterdam are taking preemptive action to adapt to climate change. Literature, interviews, secondary data, official statistics, project reports and policy briefs were used to identify institutional arrangements used by the city governments to encourage innovations in climate adaptation strategies and involve the private sector in climate change policy implementation. We focus on cases that create positive opportunities; exploring how innovations are facilitated within the theoretical frameworks of the Porter hypothesis and eco-innovation. We examine two possible pathways of climate change governance, firstly strict regulation and formal enforcement, and secondly institutional eco-innovation and voluntary measures. We found that different emphasis is placed on the preferred pathway in each of the case studies. Hamburg focuses on formal enforcements while the Rotterdam city government encourages institutional eco-innovation by acting as a platform and also providing incentives. Our findings suggest that a well-designed institutional framework can enhance innovation and increase environmental and business performance. The framework could vary in instruments and patterns, using both formal constraints and incentives to increase voluntary actions to shape policy. The formal rules could be stringent or incentivising to shape the climate change measures. The research aims to contribute to both practice and science by providing examples that might motivate and inspire other cities to design appropriate institutions for climate change policy implementation.     

IMPLEMENTING FEDERAL POLICY: A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY AND AFFIRMATIVE ACTION IN SELECTED TEXAS CITIES

Equal employment opportunities and affirmative action plans are mandated by Federal law. The paper examines the implementation of these Federal policies in selected Texas cities through an analysis of existing affirmative action plans and through an assessment of the attitudes of the administrators of these plans. The paper suggests that the successful implementation of these policies can be associated with a number of variables in the policy implementation process.     

Travel Self-Containment in Master Planned Estates: Analysis of Recent Australian Trends

Low density suburban development and excessive use of automobiles are associated with serious urban and environmental problems. Master planned development suggests itself as a possible palliative for these ills. This study examines the patterns and dynamics of movement in a selection of master planned estates in Australia with the aim of developing new approaches for assessing the containment of travel within planned development. A geographical information systems methodology is used to determine regional journey-to-work patterns and travel containment rates. Factors that influence self-containment patterns are estimated with a regression model. The findings of the pilot study demonstrate that the proposed model is a useful starting point for a systematic and detailed analysis of self-containment in master planned estates.     

Managing the transition to a more compact city in Australia

This paper explores the transition towards the compact city model in Australia, which has become the orthodoxy of metropolitan planning in the last two decades. This transition is aligned with neoliberal policies through which private investment and the marketplace have become dominant in driving urban growth and change. However, an intensive review of the experience of Sydney and Perth shows that a metanarrative of transition from a social-democratic to a neoliberal form in metropolitan planning is an oversimplification, and blurs the redeployment of state powers, processes and institutions to address new challenges. The paper explores two related points. First, it demonstrates how a methodical examination of the eclectic mixture of policies designed to drive the compact city transition can enable the identification and analysis of shared policy trends across the two cities. These trends relate to metropolitan strategies, transport planning, infrastructure funding, centralization and local input. Second, it demonstrates how such a review can also provide broader insights into the contours of the political economy of the compact city, and the potential significance for its citizenry. Key insights relate to who has a say in development control, growing executive power, increased government engagement with lobby groups and growing inequality.     

Rethinking the Providence Hill cable car: transit,equity, and urban design in Rio de Janeiro

In July 2014, the oldest slum in Rio de Janeiro, Morro da Providência (“Providence Hill”), received a cable car meant to facilitate up- and downhill commuting for residents of this hilltop community adjacent to downtown. Socioeconomic indicators suggest that this community was an ideal recipient of such a project, which facilitated mobility to center-city transit and potential employment. Yet the resulting impact on the adjacent built environment may have negatively impacted small-business vitality and development opportunities for residents of the community. Using social indicators and urban design analysis, this paper examines the distributional and design implications of these choices and proposes improvements.     

Job accessibility and ethnic minority employment in urban and rural areas in Taiwan

This study is an empirical exploration of the effects of job accessibility on ethnic minority employment in urban and rural areas. The urban sample is composed of Taiwanese aborigines who migrated to cities from their native locales while the rural sample is composed of aborigines who reside in aboriginal villages. Sample data are collected through questionnaire surveys conducted in 2009 and 2012. Results indicate that rural aborigines have a lower unemployment rate but less stable employment than urban aborigines. Employed rural aborigines receive slightly higher salaries and incur higher commuting cost than employed urban aborigines. However, regardless of where the aborigines live (i.e., urban or rural areas), increased job accessibility is not related to employment and employment stability, but significantly increases aboriginal salary. Moreover, improved job accessibility increases the commuting time of rural aborigines, but its effects on the commuting time of urban aborigines depend on the travel mode. Empirical evidence implies that migrating to cities can be both beneficial and fruitless for aboriginal employment, and that the effects of accessibility on the employment of Taiwanese aborigines in urban and rural areas are both similar to and different from those of non‐aborigines documented in previous studies.     

NEIGHBORHOOD DEVELOPMENT IN THE METROPOLITAN ECONOMY: A Policy Review

ABSTRACT: This article introduces policymakers and scholars to several issues in the development of city neighborhoods and their residents. It constructs a literature review around a tree diagram of problems and solutions, arguing that this is a more useful way to organize information than the social science questions that typically interest academics. Following this structured overview, I make the following arguments about space and scale in neighborhood policy: (1) Even if we adopt an individualistic model of economic behavior, we do not necessarily need to choose “people” over “place.” (2) The rationale for the development of neighborhood export jobs remains weak. However, we may be able to identify a “preferred policy scale” for job development and placement connections. This is defined as the scale at which the problem of spatial mismatch is not solved at the expense of broader economic development considerations, and vice versa. The research agenda underlying this simple idea would require more sophisticated and policy-relevant work on commuting patterns and on the interaction behavior and other competitive advantages of firms situated in intra-metropolitan space.