The effect of post-fire-curing on strength-velocity relationship for nondestructive assessment of fire-damaged concrete strength

This paper investigates the residual compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) of concrete, which has been water-cured after exposure to high temperatures. The relationship between the residual strength ratio and the residual UPV ratio was developed. Cylindrical specimens were made of concrete with water-cement ratios of 0.58 and 0.68 and, after 90 days, the specimens were heated in an electric furnace to temperatures ranging from 400 to 1000 °C. The concrete specimens exposed to elevated temperatures were cured in a water tank for 72 h and tested after 4, 27, 87 and 177 days. The ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength of each post-fire-curing specimen were measured. Experimental results show that water curing of the concrete specimens after exposure to high temperatures has noticeable effects on the residual strength and UPV recovery. It is also shown that a change in the mixture proportion of concrete does not have a significant effect on the residual strength ratio and the residual UPV ratio of concrete subjected to elevated temperatures. The relationship between the residual strength ratio and the residual UPV ratio was developed and a general equation is proposed for predicting the residual strength of post-fire-curing concrete. Finally, this paper verifies the validity of the proposed equation for predicting the residual strength ratios of post-fire-curing concrete with the measured residual UPV ratios.     

青藏高原低气压环境下钢管混凝土的核心混凝土密实性评估方法研究

为研究高海拔低气压条件对混凝土抗压强度与超声波速相关性的影响,分别在高海拔地区(西藏山南)与低海拔地区(广西南宁)进行了不同水灰比混凝土试件的制备与强度、超声波速测试,研究表明,低气压条件下7～56d龄期混凝土的抗压强度比标准气压条件下相同配合比混凝土高出约5.8%～38.2%;低气压条件下混凝土的超声波速低于标准气压条件下相同强度混凝土,不同气压下混凝土超声波速与强度存在不同的线性关系,并在此基础上提出了不同气压下混凝土超声波速与强度的相关关系模型。通过压汞试验(MIP)及数值模拟分析,揭示了混凝土超声波速受微观结构中固体超声波速及孔隙率两因素共同影响的机理,建立了不同气压下混凝土固体超声波速的计算模型。基于混凝土超声波速与强度的相关性及不同灌注工艺的密实程度,提出了不同气压条件下钢管混凝土的核心混凝土密实性评估方法。     

Properties and behavior of self-compacting concrete produced with GBFS and FA additives subjected to high temperatures

This paper presents an experimental investigation on the performance of self-compacting concrete (SCC) subjected to high temperatures. For this purpose, Portland cement was replaced with fly ash (FA) and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) in various proportions with and without polypropylene (PP) fibers and the PP fiber content was 2 kg/m³ for the mixtures that contained fibers. When the specimens were 56 days old, they were heated to elevated temperatures (200, 400, 600 or 800 °C). Afterword, tests were conducted to determine the weight loss and the compressive strength. Moreover, the change in the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) was determined, and observations for surface cracks were made after the specimens were exposed to elevated temperatures. A severe strength loss was observed for all of the concretes after 600 °C, particularly for the concretes that contained PP fibers; however, the fibers reduced and eliminated the risk of explosive spalling. Based on the test results, it can be concluded that the performance of FA concrete is better than that of the GBFS concrete.     

Modeling with ANN and effect of pumice aggregate and air entrainment on the freeze–thaw durabilities of HSC

The objective of this work is to calculate the compressive strength, ultrasound pulse velocity (UPV), relative dynamic modulus of elasticity (RDME) and porosity induced into concrete during freezing and thawing. Freeze–thaw durability of concrete is of great importance to hydraulic structures in cold areas. In this paper, freezing of pore solution in concrete exposed to a freeze–thaw cycle is studied by following the change of concrete some mechanical and physical properties with freezing temperatures. The effects of pumice aggregate (PA) ratios on the high strength concrete (HSC) properties were studied at 28 days. PA replacements of fine aggregate (0–2 mm) were used: 10%, 20%, and 30%. The properties examined included compressive strength, UPV and RDME properties of HSC. Results showed that compressive strength, UPV and RDME of samples were decreased with increase in PA ratios. Test results revealed that HSC was still durable after 100, 200 and 300 cycles of freezing and thawing in accordance with ASTM C666. After 300 cycles, HSC showed a reduction in compressive strength between 6% and 21%, and reduction in RDME up to 16%. For 300 cycles, the porosity was increased up to 12% for HSC with PA. In this paper, feed-forward artificial neural networks (ANNs) techniques are used to model the relative change in compressive strength and relative change in UPV in cyclic thermal loading. Then genetic algorithms are applied in order to determine optimum mix proportions subjected to 300 thermal cycling.     

Concrete compressive strength prediction using ultrasonic pulse velocity through artificial neural networks

Numerous attempts to use ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) as a measure of compressive strength of concrete has been made due to obvious advantages of non-destructive testing methods. The present study is conducted for prediction of compressive strength of concrete based on weight and UPV for two different concrete mixtures (namely M20 and M30) involving specimens of two different sizes and shapes as a result of need for rapid test method for predicting long-term compressive strength of concrete. The prediction is done using multiple regression analysis and artificial neural networks. A comparison between two methods depicts that artificial neural networks can be used to predict the compressive strength of concrete effectively. The results are plotted as experimentally evaluated compressive strength versus predicted strength through both methods of analysis.     

A combined ultrasound method applied to high performance concrete with silica fume

The use of ultrasonic relative amplitude ratio (RAR) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) to evaluate the strength of high performance concrete (HPC) with 10%, 20% and 30% silica fume content at water/binder ratios from 0.22 to 0.40 with different curing conditions is presented in this paper. As the composition, maturity, free water content and curing conditions are factors that influence the strength of concrete, their effect on the measured UPV and the RAR are determined. Results show that UPV measurement is less sensitive at high level of strength but has good correlation with the compressive strength of HPC with silica fume, whereas RAR maintain good sensitivity at all level of strength (irrespective of the factors that influence the strength) with reduced correlation coefficient. The suggested combined UPV and RAR-strength correlation can be used to estimate the compressive strength of HPC with silica fume and can be combined with other nondestructive testing methods for better estimation of strength.     

Effect of elevated temperature on the mechanical properties of concrete produced with finely ground pumice and silica fume

This study investigated the effect of elevated temperature on the mechanical and physical properties of concrete specimens obtained by substituting cement with finely ground pumice (FGP) at proportions of 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% by weight. To determine the effect of silica fume (SF) additive on the mechanical and physical properties of concrete containing FGP, SF has been added to all series except for the control specimen, which contained 10% cement by weight instead. The specimens were heated in an electric furnace up to 400, 600 and 800 °C and kept at these temperatures for one hour. After the specimens were cooled in the furnace, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), compressive strength and weight loss values were determined. The results demonstrated that adding the mineral admixtures to concrete decreased both unit weight and compressive strength. Additionally, elevating the temperature above 600 °C affected the compressive strength such that the weight loss of concrete was more pronounced for concrete mixtures containing both FGP and SF. These results were also supported by scanning electron microscope (SEM) studies.     

Evaluation of rubbercrete based on ultrasonic pulse velocity and rebound hammer tests

Several research works have been carried out to study the fresh and hardened properties of concrete containing crumb rubber (rubbercrete) as a replacement of fine aggregate. The outcomes of these studies have highlighted the advantages and disadvantages of rubbercrete compared with conventional concrete mixtures. In view of the fact that rubbercrete is being used in the construction industry for a variety of purposes, evaluations of the rubbercrete mixtures using non-destructive tests such as rebound hammer (RH) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) to establish valid relationships is worthwhile. Fifteen mixtures with different w/c ratios (ratios of weight of water to weight of cement) and crumb rubber content percentages were prepared, cast and tested using RH and UPV at different curing ages. Models were proposed and statistically validated to predict the relationship between compressive strength with UPV and rebound number (RN) for rubbercrete mixtures at 3, 7 and 28 days.     

Effect of elevated temperature on bond between steel reinforcement and fiber reinforced concrete

The bond behavior between fiber reinforced concrete and 20-mm reinforcing steel rebars was evaluated under elevated temperatures. Fifty modified pullout specimens (100×100×400 mm) were prepared using high strength concrete with basalt aggregate and different volumetric mixtures of three types of fibers, namely brass-coated steel fibers, hooked steel fibers, and high modulus polypropylene fibers, before being cured for 28 days at 40 °C. Specimens, designated for heat-treatment, were then subjected to elevated temperatures, ranging from 350 to 700 °C, whereas unheated (control) ones were left in laboratory air. The overall response of control and heat-damaged specimens, pulled out up to failure, and cracking extent and continuity were described. Standard cubes (100 mm³) were cast, cured, and heat treated under similar conditions, then tested to evaluate compressive and splitting strengths. The results showed marked reductions in residual compressive, splitting and steel–concrete bond under high temperatures with dramatic changes in bond stress–free-end slip trend behavior. Use of fibers minimized the damage in steel–concrete bond under elevated temperatures and hence the reduction in bond strength. Specimens which incorporated hooked steel fibers attained the highest bond resistance against elevated temperatures followed, in sequence, by those prepared with the mixture of hooked and brass-coated steel, the mixture of hooked steel and polypropylene, and brass-coated steel fibers. Statistical models for bond stress versus free-end slip and bond strength versus exposure temperature were developed. These showed excellent agreement with the trend behavior of present experimental data.     

Research on mechanical behavior of recycled aggregate concrete after high temperatures

以历经最高温度、再生粗骨料取代率、粗骨料类型、混凝土强度为变化参数,设计和制作了168个再生混凝土标准棱柱体试件,对其进行高温后的物理及力学性能试验。试验中观察了高温后试件的表观变化及其受力破坏形态,获取了再生混凝土的高温烧失率以及各试件的轴心受压全过程应力-应变曲线,通过分析各变化参数对历经高温后再生混凝土的物理及力学性能的影响规律,根据最高受火温度和质量烧失率分别提出高温后再生混凝土轴心抗压强度评估公式。结果表明：随着温度的提高,高温后再生混凝土由青灰色变为棕灰色,最后呈灰白色,出现温度裂缝及剥落现象;烧失率随着温度的提高、取代率的增大和强度的降低而显著增大;温度对高温后再生混凝土破坏形态及力学性能的影响最大,温度越高,其轴心受压破坏时的裂缝带越宽,破坏程度越严重;随着温度的升高,其弹性模量的衰减程度要比峰值应力的大;相比卵石骨料再生混凝土,高温对碎石骨料再生混凝土力学性能的影响更为显著;混凝土强度和再生粗骨料取代率变化对高温后再生混凝土的力学性能无明显影响。基于试验结果提出的高温后再生混凝土轴心抗压强度的评估计算结果与实测结果吻合较好。     

高温后沙漠砂混凝土抗压强度超声检测

考虑温度和沙漠砂替代率两个因素,对90个尺寸为100 mm×100 mm×100 mm沙漠砂混凝土立方体进行高温试验,通过对高温后试件进行抗压强度和超声检测试验,探究沙漠砂替代率和温度对抗压强度和超声波速的影响,建立高温后相对抗压强度劣化模型,得到沙漠砂混凝土高温后相对抗压强度与相对超声波速之间的关系,为沙漠砂混凝土高温后抗压强度的无损检测提供技术支撑。     

Effect of concrete mixing parameters on propagation of ultrasonic waves

An experimental study was conducted to evaluate the effect of concrete aggregate gradation, water–cement ratio, and curing time on measured ultrasonic wave velocity (UPV). 30 × 30 × 10 cm Portland cement concrete slabs were cast for ultrasonic evaluation, while 10 cm diameter by 20 cm height cylinders were cast for compressive strength evaluation The slabs and cylinders were prepared using Portland cement and limestone aggregate. Two slabs were cast from each combination of coarse aggregate gradations and water cement ratio (0.40, 0.45, 0.50, and 0.55). Four ASTM gradations were considered, ASTM No: 8, 67, 56, and 4. These gradations have nominal maximum aggregate size 25, 4.75, 19.3, and 12.5 mm, respectively.The ultrasonic equipment used in this study was the portable ultrasonic non-destructive digital indicating tester (PUNDIT) with a generator having an amplitude of 500 V producing 54 kHz waves. The time needed to transfer the signal between the transducers was recorded and used to calculate the signal velocity, which was used as a parameter in the evaluation. Ultrasonic measurements were performed at 3, 7, 28, and 90 days after concrete casting.The results of the analysis indicated that water–cement ratio was found to have a significant effect on UPV. The UPV was found to decrease with the increase of water cement ratio. Aggregate gradation was also found to have significant effect on UPV. In general, the larger the aggregate size used in preparing Portland cement concrete, the higher the measured velocity of ultrasonic waves. Also, UPV was found to be increased as concrete curing time increased. Concrete compressive strength was found to be significantly affected by water–cement ratio and coarse aggregate gradation. Lower water–cement ratio produced higher concrete strength. Also, the concrete compressive strength increased as maximum aggregate size decreased.     

Influence of elevated temperatures on physical and compressive strength properties of concrete containing palm oil fuel ash

The residual compressive strength of concrete containing palm oil fuel ash (POFA) after exposure to elevated temperatures and subsequent cooling was investigated. Specimens from ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and POFA concrete mixes were prepared and subjected to various temperature levels. The POFA concrete contains 20% partial replacement of cement by weight and the temperature levels are; 100, 300, 500 and 800 °C. Two cooling systems which include cooling at room temperature by the natural breeze and water-spray were involved. Compressive strength test was conducted on control specimens as well as concrete specimens revived through the two cooling systems. Physical properties accompanying thermal degradations were also assessed. Residual performance as a ratio of residual strength to original strength was evaluated. The residual performance was found to be higher in POFA concrete than in the normal concrete. In addition, water-cooling was realized to aggravate strength reduction in both normal and POFA concretes when compared with air-cooling. High temperature and cooling system were also found to have great influence on physical properties, such as; mass loss, discolouration and crack patterns.     

Residual compressive behaviour of pre-heated high-performance concrete with blast–furnace–slag

An experimental program was designed and carried out to study the residual compressive behaviour of high-performance concrete (HPC) with blast–furnace–slag (BFS) at elevated temperatures ranging from 20 to 800 °C. The residual cube compressive strength is examined and the relationship between the residual compressive strength and temperature is investigated based on the heated cube specimens (100×100×100 mm³) tested on a universal test machine. In addition, on the basis of the heated prism specimens (100×100×300 mm³) tested on an electro-hydromantic rigidity servo test machine, the complete stress–strain curves are obtained, and the effects of temperatures on the residual prism compressive strength, the strain, and the elastic modulus etc are analysed. An approximate formula for the stress–strain relationship of HPC–BFS after exposure to temperatures is proposed.     

Deep learning model for estimating the mechanical properties of concrete containing silica fume exposed to high temperatures

In this study, the deep learning models for estimating the mechanical properties of concrete containing silica fume subjected to high temperatures were devised. Silica fume was used at concentrations of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 20%. Cube specimens (100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm) were prepared for testing the compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity. They were cured at 20°C±2°C in a standard cure for 7, 28, and 90 d. After curing, they were subjected to temperatures of 20°C, 200°C, 400°C, 600°C, and 800°C. Two well-known deep learning approaches, i.e., stacked autoencoders and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks, were used for forecasting the compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete containing silica fume subjected to high temperatures. The forecasting experiments were carried out using MATLAB deep learning and neural network tools, respectively. Various statistical measures were used to validate the prediction performances of both the approaches. This study found that the LSTM network achieved better results than the stacked autoencoders. In addition, this study found that deep learning, which has a very good prediction ability with little experimental data, was a convenient method for civil engineering.     

Mechanical properties of normal and high strength concretes subjected to high temperatures and using image analysis to detect bond deteriorations

The effect of high temperatures, up to 250 °C, on mechanical properties of normal and high strength concretes with and without silica fume was investigated, and image analysis was performed on split concrete surfaces to see the change in bond strength between aggregate and mortar. Specimens were heated up to elevated temperatures (50, 100, 150, 200, 250 °C) without loading and then the residual compressive and splitting tensile strength, as well as the static modulus of elasticity of the specimens were determined. For normal strength concrete residual mechanical properties started to decrease at 100 °C, while using silica fume reduced the losses at high temperatures. In terms of percent residual properties, high strength concrete specimens performed better than normal strength concrete specimens for all heating cycles. Image analysis studies on the split surfaces have been utilized to investigate the effect of high temperatures on the bond strength between aggregate and mortar. Image analysis results showed that reduced water–cement ratio and the use of silica fume improved the bond strength at room temperature, and created more stable bonding at elevated temperatures up to 250 °C.     

高温后型钢再生混凝土梁的受剪性能试验研究

为研究高温后型钢再生混凝土梁的受剪性能,考虑再生粗骨料取代率、温度、混凝土强度等级3个变化参数,设计了17个试件进行不同高温后的静力加载试验。通过试验测试到不同高温型钢再生混凝土梁的物理及力学性能指标,并观察了该类梁高温后的受力破坏过程及形态,获取了其极限承载力以及受力破坏全过程的荷载-挠度曲线等重要资料,并分析了各变化参数对高温型钢再生混凝土梁的初始刚度、峰值荷载、延性系数及能量耗散的力学性能指标的影响规律。研究结果表明:随着温度的升高,型钢再生混凝土梁的质量变轻、初始刚度和峰值荷载降低,延性系数、能量耗散值则先减小再增大。取代率对各力学性能指标影响不大。随着混凝土强度的增大,初始刚度和峰值荷载增大,延性系数变小,能量耗散值基本不变。     

高温后长龄期在役混凝土抗压强度研究及微观分析

为了研究高温后长龄期在役混凝土损伤及微观变化特征,通过对龄期在20年以上的钢筋混凝土结构取样,进行在役混凝土高温试验,提出高温后在役混凝土残余抗压强度变化规律,建立在役混凝土残余抗压强度与不同温度之间的拟合回归公式,利用热重（TG）及扫描电镜观察,分析了高温后在役混凝土物相及微观形貌随受火温度的变化情况。研究结果表明:高温后在役混凝土残余抗压强度变化规律与实验室新浇筑混凝土类似,相比而言,当受火温度T≤300 ℃时,在役混凝土相对残余抗压强度略低;当T＞700 ℃时,在役混凝土相对残余抗压强度较高,所得结论可为实际工程中长龄期在役混凝土结构高温后的损伤评估提供参考依据。     

Effect of aspect ratio and volume fraction of steel fiber on the mechanical properties of SFRC

In this study, effects of aspect ratio (l/d) and volume fraction (V_f) of steel fiber on the compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity of steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) were investigated. For this purpose, hooked-end bundled steel fibers with three different l/d ratios of 45, 65 and 80 were used. Three different fiber volumes were added to concrete mixes at 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% by volume of concrete. Ten different concrete mixes were prepared. After 28 days of curing, compressive, split and flexural strength as well as ultrasonic pulse velocity were determined. It was found that, inclusion of steel fibers significantly affect the split tensile and flexural strength of concrete accordance with l/d ratio and V_f. Besides, mathematical expressions were developed to estimate the compressive, flexural and split tensile strength of SFRCs regarding l/d ratio and V_f of steel fibers.     

On residual strength of high-performance concrete with and without polypropylene fibres at elevated temperatures

Cubes of 100×100×100 mm³ and cylinders of 100×100×515 mm³ were designed and fabricated with C50, C80 and C100 high-performance concrete (HPC) mixed with and without polypropylene (PP) fibres, respectively. These specimens were heated in an electric furnace, approximately following the curve of ISO-834, with a series of target temperatures ranging from 20 to 900 °C. No explosive spalling was observed during the fire test on HPC specimens with PP fibres, whereas some spalling occurred for HPC specimens without PP fibres. The relationship between the mass loss and the exposure temperature was investigated. In addition, the heated and cooled cubes and prisms were tested under monotonic compressive loading and four-point bending loading, respectively. The degradation of both the residual compressive strength and the residual flexural strength was analyzed. Furthermore, the effects of PP fibres on the residual mechanical strength of HPC specimens at elevated temperatures were also investigated. Finally, a fire-resistance design curve relating the residual compressive strength to temperature, as well as a design curve relating the residual flexural strength to temperature, were proposed based on the statistical analysis of the test data.