不同发烟特性燃料油池火轰燃的实验研究

搭建了1∶5的双开口油池火实验模型,分析不同发烟特性燃料池火热辐射、烟气成分、烟气层温度的变化,研究轰燃发生的临界条件和发展规律。以2.5 L酒精或0.9 L柴油作为主火源,140 mm×130 mm×3 mm橡胶作为待引燃燃料。结果表明,可燃液体燃料的发烟特性对轰燃的发生具有重要的影响,利用地面接收到的热辐射作为轰燃预测的阈值具有可行性。此模型轰燃发生的临界判据是地面接收到的辐射热通量高于15.93 kW/m~2。轰燃后柴油池火受限空间温度场分布均匀性好于酒精池火。发烟量较大的池火轰燃后受限空间可分为中部火焰区、上部热烟气区和下部冷空气区。     

在建建筑火灾轰燃数值仿真研究

为研究在建建筑特殊火灾的轰燃现象,建立火灾能量守恒方程,基于燕尾突变理论确定突变势函数,计算出在建建筑火灾轰燃时上层烟气的临界温度。利用模拟软件FDS对在建建筑不同施工场景进行仿真模拟,得到火灾特征参数值。结果表明:不同施工阶段的火灾可燃物不同,发生轰燃的时间点不同;随着通风风速的增加,火灾热释放速率增长逐渐放缓,烟气可见度增长加快,一定的通风速度有助于提高排烟效率;不同火源位置火灾特征不同,狭窄空间更容易发生轰燃,未封闭楼梯间处烟囱效应明显。     

火源对木结构古建筑轰燃的影响研究

运用FDS对某木结构古建筑建模,设定3个火源位置模拟火灾发展过程,得出热释放速率随时间的变化,研究火源位置、火源功率对木结构古建筑的轰燃的影响,得出轰燃发生时间的拟合方程。结果表明:火源位置不同导致起火范围不同,最终影响轰燃时间和最大热释放速率;轰燃时间与火源功率呈递减幂函数关系,最大热释放速率不受火源功率的影响。     

地下车库火灾烟气温度特性的数值模拟研究

利用火灾模拟软件FDS，根据地下汽车库实际尺寸建立了火灾模型，模拟了第275 s时引燃右侧据火源1 m处的车辆发生的轰燃现象。通过从不同层面对轰然前后空间温度的分析，探究了机械通风条件下车库火灾温度演化的规律。     

纵向风速对隧道细水雾灭火效果影响探讨

摘 要：为了探究细水雾和纵向通风共同作用下隧道内烟气运动情况,确定配置有细水雾灭火系统的隧道最佳通风策略。采用FDS建立了隧道细水雾数值模拟模型,分别计算了不同纵向风速情况下隧道内温度、有害气体浓度及辐射热通量的变化情况。结果表明：30 MW火灾规模下,烟气层在火源上风向15 m的喷雾区开始出现逐渐层降,烟气层下降至2 m以下;至300 s灭火结束时,上风向150 m内,烟气层全部下降至2 m以下。故火灾发生5 min后,人员疏散距离应大于150 m。对比相同通风风速下（1 m/s）细水雾施加前后辐射热通量变化情况得出,开启细水雾灭火系统25 s后,火源下游5 m处热辐射强度由6 kW/m2降至0。建议开启细水雾灭火系统时尽量保持隧道内1 m/s的通风风速。     

基于传感器十字交叉式排布的飞机货舱早期火源定位研究

摘 要：提出一种早期火灾火源定位方法,用于飞机在高空航行时低温低压状态下的货舱火源定位情形。该方法基于传感器十字交叉式排布,利用传感器检测到烟雾信号的延迟间隔,计算烟雾传播位移差,溯源定位火源位置。可在火灾发生早期阶段,精确定位火源,有效减少灭火剂的投放量,减轻灭火剂残留物对大气环境的损害,促进绿色民航建设。为验证定位算法的准确性,采用PyroSim火灾模拟软件按1∶1建立了A330-300后下货舱模型,随机选取20个火源点,在低温低压状态下火源定位平均相对误差为2.44%。结果表明,该定位方法定位精准度高,适用于飞机货舱火源探测,具有良好的可行性。     

火源对单室轰燃影响的模拟研究

采用FDS模拟热释放速率不同的火源导致单室轰燃的情况。模拟分始终燃烧和火源仅燃烧一段时间两种状况。模拟得出使房间发生轰燃的临界火源热释放速率以及火源热释放速率与发生轰燃时间之间的乘幂函数关系。火源不持续燃烧时火源热释放速率与使房间发生轰燃的临界火源供热时间也存在乘幂函数关系。发生轰燃时间大于喷头动作时间,所以安装喷淋能有效抑制轰燃。     

超高海拔隧道火灾燃烧与烟气温度现场模型试验研究

随着我国川藏铁路和高原公路的不断修建,超高海拔地区“三低”环境特征将对高原隧道火灾燃烧和烟气扩散特性产生严重影响。文章采用移动模型隧道火灾试验平台对成都平原、海拔3544m、4103m超高海拔山区在相同油盘尺寸和燃料体积条件下,火灾燃烧和烟气温度分布进行现场试验研究。研究结果表明：随着海拔高度的增加,火灾热释放率和火源区拱顶温度不断下降,燃烧时间明显增长;与平原地区相同火灾规模相比,超高海拔隧道火源区拱顶温度略有下降;超高海拔地区拱顶纵向温度衰减速率显著低于平原地区,火灾高温烟气热浮升力效应在超高海拔隧道内更突出。     

自然排烟有效性对扁平空间烟气层的影响

针对采用自然排烟方式的扁平空间建筑火灾,采用1∶20缩尺寸模型,研究不同排烟失效模式、火源功率和火源位置等因素对烟气层特性的影响。使用天平记录燃料质量变化并计算火源功率,采用热电偶采集顶棚下烟气层温度数据,研究扁平空间顶棚低温区和高温区的分布特性。试验表明:各工况下燃料质量损失速率变化不大;火源靠近壁面时,高温烟气区占比减少;排烟口和补风口的多种失效模式对扁平空间火灾的顶棚烟气层分布特征影响较小。     

不同通风条件下飞机客舱火灾轰燃时间研究

基于FAA客舱火灾全尺寸实体实验,利用FDS重构实验场景,在外部火源引发的客舱火灾条件下,模拟预测轰燃时间为215 s,与实体试验预测的210 s基本吻合,验证了计算机模拟预测轰燃时间的有效性,并基于此模拟了现代客机A330-300客舱火灾蔓延规律,预测在不同通风状况下,其轰燃时间在3 min左右。     

室内烟气运动影响因素模拟研究

运用FDS模拟室内火灾烟气的运动规律,分析烟气层稳定性,以及门的尺寸、火源位置和火源面积对烟气温度及高度的影响。结果表明,具有稳定热释放速率的火源,燃烧一段时间后烟气层高度不会随时间发生变化;烟气层高度随门的高度和宽度增加而升高;火源处于房间中心时,烟气层高度随着门宽度增加迅速升高,与门高度的关系较小;随着火源面积增加,烟气层高度下降,温度升高。     

Experimental study of natural roof ventilation in full-scale enclosure fire tests in a small compartment

An analysis of full-scale fire test experimental data is presented for a small compartment (3×3.6×2.3 m). A square steady fire source is placed in the center of the compartment. There is an open door and a horizontal opening in the roof, so that natural ventilation is established for the well-ventilated fire. A parameter study is performed, covering a range of total fire heat release rates (330, 440 and 550 kW), fire source areas (0.3×0.3 m and 0.6×0.6 m) and roof ventilation opening areas (1.45×1 m, 0.75×1 m and 0.5×1 m). The impact of the different parameters is examined on the smoke layer depth and the temperature variations in vertical direction in the compartment. Both mean temperatures and temperature fluctuations are reported. The total fire heat release rate value has the strongest influence on the hot smoke layer average temperature rise, while the influence of the fire source area and the roof opening is smaller. The hot smoke layer depth, determined from the measured temperature profiles, is primarily influenced by the fire source area, while the total fire heat release rate and the roof opening only have a small impact. Correlations are given for the hot smoke layer average temperature rise, the buoyancy reference velocity and the total smoke mass flow rate out of the compartment, as a function of the different parameters mentioned. Based on the experimental findings, it is discussed that different manual calculation methods, widely used for natural ventilation design of compartments in the case of fire, under-predict the hot layer thickness and total smoke mass flow rate, while the hot layer average temperature is over-estimated.     

Flame spread limits (LOC) of fire resistant fabrics

Selecting fabrics based on their fire resistance is important for professions with substantial fire risk such as firefighters, race car drivers, and astronauts suits. Generally, fire resistant materials are tested under standard atmospheric conditions. However, their flammability properties can change when the ambient conditions deviate from standard atmospheric conditions. Particularly in high altitude locations, aircraft, and spacecraft, the pressure and oxygen concentrations are different than in a standard atmosphere. Also, the presence of external radiation (i.e. overheating component or nearby fire) can reduced the fire resistance of a material. In this work, an experimental study was conducted to analyze the influence of environmental variables such as oxygen concentration, ambient pressure, and external radiant heat flux on the flame spread limits of two different fire resistant fabrics: Nomex HT90-40 and a blend made of Cotton/Nylon/Nomex. Ambient pressure was varied between 40 and 100 kPa and ambient oxygen concentrations were decreased until the Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC), limiting conditions which would permit flame propagation, were found. Experiments were conducted using no external radiant flux or a radiant flux of 5 kW/m² to examine the influence of the presence of a nearby heat source. Among the results, it was found that as ambient pressure is reduced the oxygen concentration required for the flame to propagate must be increased. The external radiant heat flux acts as an additional source of heat and allows propagation of the flame at lower oxygen concentrations. An analysis of the propagation limits in terms of the partial pressure of oxygen suggest that the LOC of a material is not only determined by heat transfer mechanisms but also by chemical kinetic mechanisms. The information provided in this work helps characterize increased flammability risk of materials when in environments different from the standard atmospheric conditions at which they are typically tested.     

Impact of Flashover Fire Conditions on Exposed Energized Electrical Cords/Cables

There has been prior research exploring the exposure of common electrical cords and cables to fire, but that has traditionally been at the lab scale and under near steady-state exposures. The goal of these experiments was to expose six types of cords and cables in a room-scale compartment with a fuel load sufficient to drive the compartment through flashover. The basic test design was to expose the cords and cables on the floor of a compartment to a growing fire to determine the conditions under which the cord/cable would trip the circuit protection device. All of the cords were energized and installed on a non-combustible surface. The six cables and cords were protected by three different circuit protection devices which were remote from the thermal exposure. This configuration resulted in 18 exposures per experiment. The room fires experiments consisted of three replicate fires with two sofas as the main fuel source, two replicate fires with one sofa as the main fuel source and one fire with two sofas and vinyl-covered MDF paneling on three walls in the room. Each fuel package was sufficient to support flashover conditions in the room. The average peak heat release rate of the sofa fueled compartment fires with gypsum board ceiling and walls prior to suppression was 6.8 MW. The addition of vinyl covered MDF wall paneling on three of the compartment walls increased the pre-suppression peak heat release rate to 12 MW. In each experiment during post flashover exposure, the insulation on the cords and cables ignited and burned through, exposing bare wire. During this period, the circuits faulted. Assessments of both the thermal exposure and physical damage to the cords did not reveal any correlation between the thermal exposure, cord/cable damage, and trip type.     

Description of small and large-scale cross laminated timber fire tests

A large-scale fire test was conducted on a compartment constructed from cross laminated timber (CLT). The internal faces of the compartment were lined with non-combustible board, with the exception of one wall and the ceiling where the CLT was exposed directly to the fire inside the compartment. Extinction of the fire occurred without intervention. During the fire test, measurements were made of incident radiant heat flux, gas phase temperature, and in-depth temperature in the CLT. In addition, gas flow velocities and gas phase temperatures at the opening were measured, as well as incident heat fluxes at the facade due to flames and the plume leaving the opening. The fuel load was chosen to be sufficient to attain flashover, to achieve steady-state burning conditions of the exposed CLT, but to minimize the probability of uncertain behaviors induced by the specific characteristics of the CLT. Ventilation conditions were chosen to approximate maximum temperatures within a compartment. Wood cribs were used as fuel and, following decay of the cribs, self-extinction of the exposed CLT rapidly occurred. In parallel with the large-scale test, a small scale study focusing on CLT self-extinction was conducted. This study was used to establish: the range of incident heat fluxes for which self-extinction of the CLT can occur; the duration of exposure after which steady-state burning occurred; and the duration of exposure at which debonding of the CLT could occur. The large-scale test is described, and the results from both the small and large-scale tests are compared. It is found that self-extinction occurred in the large-scale compartment within the range of critical heat fluxes obtained from the small scale tests.     

Fire development in a 1/3 train carriage mock-up

To study what parameters that control the initial fire spread and the development to local flashover in a metro carriage, a total of six fire tests were conducted in a mock-up of a metro carriage that is about 1/3 of a full wagon length. They were carried out under a large scale calorimeter in a laboratory environment. The focus was on the initial fire development in a corner scenario using different types of ignition source that may lead to a fully developed fire. The ignition sources used were either a wood crib placed on a corner seat or one litre of petrol poured on the corner seat and the neighbouring floor together with a backpack. The amount of luggage and wood cribs in the neighbourhood of the ignition source was continuously increased in order to identify the limits for flashover in the test-setup. The tests showed that the combustible boards on parts of the walls had a significant effect on the fire spread. In the cases where the initial fire did not exceed a range of 400–600 kW no flashover was observed. If the initial fire grew up to 700–900 kW a flashover was observed. The maximum heat release rate during a short flashover period for this test set-up was about 3.5 MW. The time to reach flashover was highly dependent on the ignition type: wood cribs or backpack and petrol. A full developed carriage fire was achieved as a result of intense radiation from the flames and ceiling smoke layer. This was mostly dependent on the amount of fire load nearby the ignition source and how strong the vertical flame spread on the high pressure laminate boards mounted to walls and ceiling above the ignition source was, leading to a ceiling flame. In such cases, the seats alone did not contain sufficient fuel for the fire to spread within the train, and additional fuel (luggage) is required near the seats. For fully developed carriage fires, the fire starting on the seat in the corner spread to the opposite seat on the same side of the aisle, then horizontally spread to seats on the other side of the aisle, and finally a longitudinal flame spread along the carriage was observed. When and where the fire stopped or whether it reached a fully developed stage was mostly dependent on the amount of fire load nearby the ignition source and how strong the vertical flame spread on the high pressure laminate boards mounted to walls and ceiling above the ignition source was.     

Slide rule estimates of Fire Growth

A series of prediction methods has been assembled to provide an analytical basis for estimating fire growth in compartments. Solutions for each prediction method can be made using programmable scientific calculators. Prediction methods are presented for: fire size and growth rates, mass loss rates, radiant heat flux, flame height, radial flame impingement, heat flux to a ceiling, smoke filling of a room, carbon monoxide hazard with smoldering fires, temperature rise in a compartment, ventilation flow rate, flashover occurrence, corridor smoke transfer and filling, smoke concentration, visibility, flame spread rates, and fire burn time.These predictive methods are useful for estimating many of the critical elements related to fire behavior and help provide a better understanding of this complex phenomenon.This report appears as Appendix B inFire Growth in Combat Ships by J. G. Quintiere, H. R. Baum and J. R. Lawson, NBSIR 85-3159. Reference: J. R. Lawson and J. G. Quintiere, Slide Rule Estimates of Fire Growth,Fire Technology, Vol. 21, No. 4, November 1985, p. 267.This paper is a contribution of the National Bureau of Standards and is not subject to copyright.     

CFD modelling of the effect of fire source geometry and location on smoke flow multiplicity

Understanding solution multiplicity of smoke flow at the same building configuration and ambient conditions is important for managing smoke flows and human evacuation in buildings. One of the known examples with solution multiplicity is in a simple single-compartment building on fire under an opposing wind. The occurrence of multiple solutions of smoke flow is induced by competing wind and thermal buoyancy forces. Under a given and moderate wind, the critical buoyancy flux ratio for the existence of smoke flow multiplicity, which is a ratio between defined parameters representing buoyancy force and wind pressure, is related to building height and opening area, as shown using a zone model. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were used here to evaluate whether the behaviour of smoke flow multiplicity was affected by the geometry and location of the fire source(s). Our simulation results were in good agreement with previous macroscopic analysis results. A floor fire source can produce the largest smoke flow rate in the buoyancy-dominated flow regime among the tested cases while two corner sources can produce the smallest smoke flow rate. A floor source had a relatively large smoke flow rate in the wind-dominated flow regime while a point source had relatively small smoke flow rate. Moreover, a larger critical buoyancy flux ratio and a larger range of fire power in which smoke flow multiplicity existed were found for a floor fire source than for other sources. Switching of smoke flow solutions in building fires was found to depend on the initial conditions and the magnitude of flow perturbations.