Aflatoxins and fumonisins in rice and maize staple cereals in Northern Vietnam and dietary exposure in different ethnic groups

Mycotoxins in food are increasingly a food safety hazard concern in particular in developing countries. This study was performed to determine the occurrence and determinants of aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination in rice and maize and to assess health risks through dietary intake exposure among ethnic minority groups in northern Vietnam. A total of 111 rice and 102 maize samples, were tested for occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins, i.e. aflatoxins (AF’s) and fuminisin B (FB). Results showed that 107 (96.4%) rice and 84 (82.4%) maize samples were contaminated by fungi. Aspergillus flavus was found in 68 (61.3%) rice and 30 (29.4%) maize samples, Aspergilus parasiticus in 40 (36.0%) rice and 27 (26.7%) maize samples. AF’s - were detected in 27 rice (24.3%) and 27 maize samples (26.4%) at minimum and maximum levels in rice of 2.06 and 77.8 ng/g and 20.5 and 110 ng/g in maize, respectively. Nine (8.1%) rice and 24 (23.5%) maize samples contained FB at ranges of 2.3–624 ng/g in rice and 5.6–89.8 ng/g in maize. Data collected through interviews and observations in households showed that type of crop, storage duration and presence of fungi, particularly mycotoxigenic fungi were important risk factors for AF’s and FB contamination. Based on daily food consumption data, the estimated average exposure dose of aflatoxin B₁(AFB₁) from rice was 21.7 ng/kg bw/day for adults and 33.7 ng/kg bw/day for children. For FB, the rice based average exposure amounted to 536 ng/kg bw/day for adults and 1019 ng/kg bw/day for children. The calculated excess risk of liver cancer incidence by ingestion of cereals containing AFB₁ was 1.5 per 100,000 adults and 2.3 per 100,000 children per year. The average intake of FB was calculated to be lower than the tolerable diet intake (TDI). Our findings highlight that rice and maize are contaminated with mycotoxins at levels representing actual health hazards for the ethnic minority groups consuming these stable cereals. Proper drying and storage conditions in households are likely to reduce the mycotoxin contamination.     

Aflatoxin contamination level in Iran's pistachio nut during years 2009–2011

An efficient monitoring system for sampling, analyzing and issuing the export certificates for pistachio consignments has been established in Iran in recent years. Accordingly, 3181 commercial raw pistachio nut lots were supplied for testing for European export certification since January 2009 till December 2011. Aflatoxin analysis was carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection after immunoaffinity column clean up with recoveries ranging from 77 to 99%. Amongst 8203 sub-samples analyzed, aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) was detected in 1921 cases (23.4%) with the mean and median values of 2.18 ± 13.1 ng/g and <LOD, respectively. Total aflatoxin (AFT) was detected in 1927 sub-samples (23.5%) with the mean and median values of 2.42 ± 14.7 ng/g and <LOD, respectively. AFB₁ level in 556 (6.78%) and 428 (5.22%) sub-samples was above the maximum tolerable levels set for AFB₁ in Iran (5 ng/g) and European Union (EU) (8 ng/g). The mean contamination levels of AFB₁ (2.18 ng/g) and AFT (2.42 ng/g) were lower than the maximum tolerable levels set in Iran and EU. The contamination levels of pistachio nut for export to EU were ∼50% of those found in 2002–2003 indicating a satisfying improvement in hygienic conditions of pistachio cultivation, harvesting and post-harvesting practices in Iran.     

Estimate of aflatoxin M1 exposure in milk and occurrence in Brazil

The presence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) was investigated in 125 samples of powdered milk, pasteurized milk and ultra high treated (UHT) milk in the city of São Paulo, and estimates of AFM₁ intake were assessed. The samples were analysed using an immunoaffinity column for cleanup and a HPLC-FLD for determining AFM₁. The quantification limit was 10 ng/kg. AFM₁ was found in 119 (95.2%) at levels ranging from 10 to 200 ng/kg with mean concentration of 31 ng/kg. The average daily intake estimated for AFM₁ was 1 ng/kg bw per day for children and 0.188 ng/kg bw per day for adults.     

Effect of water activity and temperature on the growth of Aspergillus flavus,the expression of aflatoxin biosynthetic genes and aflatoxin production in shelled peanuts

The contamination of peanuts with Aspergillus flavus and subsequent aflatoxins is considered to be one of the most serious safety problems in the world. Water activity (a_w) and temperature are limiting factors for fungal growth and aflatoxins production during storage. To optimize the practical storage parameter, the effect of a_w (0.85–0.99) and temperature (15–42 °C) on fungal growth, aflatoxin production and the expression of aflatoxin biosynthetic and regulatory genes in shelled peanuts was investigated. A. flavus grew at a lower rate when temperature ≤20 °C or a_w ≤ 0.85. For the growth of A. flavus in shelled peanuts, the optimum conditions were a_w was 0.98, and the optimum temperature was 37 °C. The maximum amount of AFB₁ in peanuts was obtained at 28 °C and a_w 0.96. Real-time analysis showed that 16 of 25 genes had highest expression levels at 28 °C under a_w 0.92, while 9 genes had highest expression levels at 37 °C under a_w 0.92. Compared with 37 °C, all aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway genes were down-regulated at 42 °C. All the pathway genes and laeA were up-expressed at a_w of 0.96 under 28 °C, compared to a_w 0.99. Furthermore, there was a good positive correlation between the ratio of aflS/aflR and AFB₁ production. The expression of laeA was also positively correlated with AFB₁ production while the expression of brlA was correlated with the A. flavus growth. The results of this study suggest that AFB₁ production in peanut kernels can occur over a wider range of a_w × temperatures levels compared to formula media and peanut media. Previous studies have showed that AFB₁ could not be produced on formula media at 37 °C without the expression of most aflatoxin structural genes. But, in the un-autoclaved shelled peanuts, high concentration of AFB₁ was produced at 37 °C with up-regulation of some aflatoxin biosynthetic genes. From a food safety point of view, the results can be used to optimize certain food technological processes and develop prevention strategies to control such carcinogenic natural metabolites in grains (such as peanuts, maize and rice) and derived products.     

Aflatoxin B1 occurrence in maize sampled from Croatian farms and feed factories during 2013

The aim of the study was to determine the level of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) in maize sampled from farms and feed factories situated in Northern, Central and Eastern Croatia during 2013, following the occurrence of cow milk AFM₁ contamination. Maize samples (n = 633) were analysed using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) as a screening method and High Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) as a confirmatory method. Mean AFB₁ value found in maize coming from all investigated regions equalled to 81 μg/kg, with the maximal value of 2072 μg/kg found in maize obtained from Eastern Croatia. The observed contamination might have arisen on the grounds of extremely hot (>98%) and dry (<2%) weather witnessed from May to September 2012 during the maize growth and harvesting period, which might have favoured AFB₁ production and consequently the contamination of dairy cattle feeds. In order to prevent the adverse effects of AFB₁ on humans and animals, and also to reduce losses in agricultural production, systematic monitoring and further investigations of AFB₁ contamination are necessary.     

Detection of aflatoxin M1 levels by ELISA in white-brined Urfa cheese consumed in Turkey

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is the hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1 found in a variety of foods. In this study, 127 samples of white-brined Urfa cheese produced mainly in the southeast of Turkey from raw ovine and bovine milks were surveyed for the presence of AFM1 using a competitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) technique. The results showed that at detectable levels (≥50 ng/kg), 36 cheese samples (28.3%) were contaminated with AFM1 ranging from 70.61 to 770.97 ng/kg. Of the 36 cheese samples, 13 (10.2%) were found to have levels that exceeded the legal limits of 250 ng/kg established by the Turkish Food Codex. Consequently, the AFM1 contamination levels determined in this study in white-brined Urfa Cheese, which is commonly consumed in the southeast part of Turkey, were not considered to be a serious public health hazard. It was considered to be a potential risk for customers, particularly for infant health.     

Survey of patulin in apple juice concentrates in Shaanxi (China) and its dietary intake

This study surveyed the patulin level in the apple juice concentrates from Shaanxi province for four consecutive processing seasons, and evaluated the dietary exposure to this mycotoxin through apple juice. A total of 1987 apple juice concentrate samples were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode-array detector, and only 4 samples in 2007–2008 processing season contained patulin above 50 μg/kg, the current regulatory limit in apple juice. The incidence of patulin contamination varied significantly from 96.7% to 100% (P < 0.05) by processing season, and the patulin level among the four processing seasons varied significantly with the median level from 6.30 to 8.90 μg/kg (P < 0.05, Kruskal–Wallis test). The highest evaluated patulin intake based on the apple juice consumption from the World Health Organization's Global Environment Monitoring System/Food Contamination Monitoring and Assessment Programme (GEMS/Food) was 1.04 ng/kg body weight (bw)/day in cluster diet F. And the patulin intakes for apple juice consumers among adults, children and babies were estimated to be 28.1, 67.5 and 110 ng/kg bw/day. All of the above values were well below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake proposed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.     

Aflatoxin contamination of dried red chilies: Contrasts between the United States and Nigeria,two markets differing in regulation enforcement

Dried red chilies are among the world’s most consumed spices. From farm to fork, chilies go through cropping, harvest, drying, processing and storage. Chilies are susceptible to infection by aflatoxin producing fungi and subsequent contamination by aflatoxins at every stage. Aflatoxins are highly regulated, hepatotoxic carcinogens produced by fungi in Aspergillus section Flavi. The current study examined prevalence of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) in chilies from markets across the United States (US) and Nigeria, and determined predisposition of chilies to aflatoxins post-harvest. Aflatoxin B₁ was detected in 64% chilies from US markets (n = 169), and 93% of Nigerian chilies (n = 55) with a commercial lateral flow assay (Limit of Detection = 2 μg/kg). Two percent of US samples exceeded the aflatoxin regulatory limit of 20 μg/kg, while the highest concentration detected was 94.9 μg/kg. Aspergillus spp. could be recovered only from 40% of samples from the US, and aflatoxin levels did not correlate with quantities of Aspergillus section Flavi (Colony Forming Units g⁻¹), suggesting fungi associated with chilies in US markets were killed during processing. Both average AFB₁ concentrations and fungal quantities were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in Nigerian chilies. The most contaminated sample contained 156 μg/kg AFB₁. Aflatoxin concentrations in Nigerian chilies increased as an exponential function of the quantities of Aspergillus section Flavi (r² = 0.76). Results indicate that high rates of chili consumption may be associated with unacceptable aflatoxin exposure.     

Assessment of aflatoxin contamination in raw milk and feed in Macedonia during 2013

This work presents the first insight on the aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) occurrence in raw milk collected from Macedonia, during the mycotoxin incidence in 2013. The total tested samples number was 3635, collected from February 2013 to January 2014. They were analyzed for AFM₁ with ELISA as screening, and HPLC – fluorescence detection as confirmatory method. The AFM₁ concentrations exceeded the maximum permitted levels in 2.9% of the samples, and the highest detected concentration was 408.1 ng/kg. The follow-up actions including feed sampling revealed aflatoxin B₁ contamination in 31.8% of the samples tested, applying the HPLC-FD method. We estimated the carry-over rate between 0.22 and 3.47%. The experience obtained from the coordinated milk-feed aflatoxin survey could contribute towards increasing awareness for establishing continuous monitoring systems.     

Occurrence and factors associated with the presence of aflatoxin M1 in breast milk samples of nursing mothers in central Mexico

Aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) is the main mycotoxin frequently found in milk and dairy products. Exposure of infants to AFM₁ is of great health public concern because of its toxic and carcinogenic properties. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence, levels and factors associated with the presence of aflatoxin M₁ in breast milk samples of nursing mothers in central Mexico. A total of 112 samples were collected and analyzed by a competitive-ELISA assay during January–August 2014. A Semi-Quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire was used to determine weekly intake of food groups. Results showed that 89% of breast milk samples contained AFM₁ in a range of 3.01–34.24 ng/L. AFM₁ mean level was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in winter (12.78 ng/L) and spring (12.09 ng/L) than summer (7.91 ng/L). It was also detected that 7% of samples exceeded the European Community regulation (25 ng/L) for milk infant formula. The presence of aflatoxin M₁ was significantly associated (P < 0.05) to consumption of egg, cola drink and sunflower oil. The high occurrence and noticeable levels of AFM₁ detected, as well as the mean AFM₁ estimated daily intake (2.35 ng/kg b.w./day) suggested, for the first time, that breast-fed infants in the central region of Mexico, may be exposed to significant levels of this toxin through mother's breast milk.     

Aflatoxin M1 contamination in white and Lighvan cheese marketed in Rafsanjan,Iran

This study was a screening survey to determine the occurrence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in 82 cheese samples composed of white cheese (45 samples) and Lighvan cheese (37 samples) obtained from supermarkets and retail outlets in Rafsanjan city of Iran. The competitive enzyme immunoassay method was used for determination of the toxin in the samples. Aflatoxin M₁ was detected in 39 (47.6%) samples, consisting of 29 (64.4%) white cheese (mean: 135 ng/kg; range: 93.3–309 ng/kg) and 10 (27%) Lighvan cheese samples (mean: 90.8 ng/kg; range: 70.5–203 ng/kg). According to Iranian national standard limit for AFM₁ in cheese (200 ng/kg), 9 samples (20%) of white cheese and 1 sample (2.70%) of Lighvan cheese had levels above the limit. It was concluded that the contamination of the samples with AFM₁ in such a level could be considered as a serious public health problem.     

Incidence and consumer awareness of toxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi and aflatoxin B1 in peanut cake from Nigeria

Peanut cake samples were collected from major markets in five states of Nigeria and evaluated for incidence of toxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi populations, and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) levels by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). The awareness of consumers to the presence of aflatoxin in the snack and potential health risks of its regular ingestion was evaluated by questionnaire analysis. Aspergillus section Flavi populations were recovered from 83% of the peanut cake samples. Aspergillus flavus L-strain was the most predominant (>56%) across the states while Aspergillus tamarii had the least mean incidence (2.7%). The incidence of atoxigenic strains was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than that of toxigenic strains in samples from Lagos and Kaduna, while the toxigenic strains had a significantly (p < 0.05) higher incidence than the atoxigenic strains in Niger. All analyzed cake samples contained AFB₁ in concentrations exceeding the NAFDAC recommended level for AFB₁ in food and reaching up to 2824 μg/kg. There was a weak positive correlation (r = 0.32, p = 0.03) for the relationship between the incidence of toxigenic strains in the samples and AFB₁ concentration. The consumer awareness data showed that 64% of the respondents consumed peanut cake; majority of who are youth of economic and reproductive age. Eighty-five percent of the consumers lacked awareness of aflatoxin contamination in the snack and possible health risks associated with its ingestion.     

Co-exposures of aflatoxins with deoxynivalenol and fumonisins from maize based complementary foods in Rombo,Northern Tanzania

Children consuming maize based foods in Tanzania may be exposed to multiple mycotoxins. We estimated co-exposures of aflatoxins with Deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins for children in rural Tanzania. Food consumption by the children was estimated by twice administering a 24 h dietary recall questionnaire to mothers of 18–24 months old children in Kikelelwa village. Each mother also, provided a sample of maize based flour used for feeding her child in the previous day. Each child's body weight (bw) was measured by following standard procedures. Aflatoxins, DON and fumonisins were determined in each sample using validated HPLC methods. Exposures for a mycotoxin were estimated by multiplying flour consumption (g/child/kgbw/day) by its contamination (μg/kg). Complete data were obtained for 41 children. Maize flour consumption ranged from 16 to 254 g/child/day. Thirteen (32%) of the 41 children consumed flour with detectable aflatoxin levels (range, 0.11–386 μg/kg), resulting in exposures from 1 to 786 ng/kg bw/day. All these children exceeded the aflatoxins exposure of concern (0.017 ng/kg bw/day). Eighteen (44%) of the children consumed flour with detectable DON levels (57–825 μg/kg) and 34 (83%), detectable fumonisins levels (63–2284 μg/kg), resulting in respective exposure ranges of 0.38–8.87 μg/kg bw/day and 0.19–26.37 μg/kg bw/day. Twelve (66%) of the DON exposed children and 56% of the fumonisins exposed children exceeded the respective provisional tolerable daily intakes of 1 μg/kg bw and 2 μg/kg bw. Co-exposures for aflatoxins with both DON and fumonsins were determined in 10% of the 41 children. Co-exposures of aflatoxins with fumonisins alone were found in 29% and of fumonisins with DON alone in 41% of the children. The study showed that children consuming maize based complementary foods in Northern Tanzania are at a risk of exposure to multiple mycotoxins. We recommend adoption of appropriate measures to minimize exposures of multiple mycotoxins in Tanzania.     

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in white cheese samples from Tehran, Iran

This study was undertaken to determine the occurrence of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in 50 white cheese samples from 2 dairy factories in summer 2008 and winter 2009. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method was used for analysis of the samples. Aflatoxin M₁ was found in 60% of the cheese samples, ranging from 40.9 to 374 ng/kg. Toxin levels in 6% of the samples exceeded the Iranian national standard limit i.e. 200 ng/kg. Considering seasonal variability, mean concentration of AFM₁ in the samples collected in winter was significantly (P < 0.03) higher than those collected in summer. Therefore, high occurrence of AFM₁ in cheese samples could be a potential hazard for public health.     

Aflatoxin M1 in raw,pasteurized and powdered milk available in the Syrian market

The incidence of contamination of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk samples collected from the Syrian market was investigated by using the competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique. A total of 126 samples composed of raw cow milk (74 samples), raw sheep milk (23), raw goat milk (11), pasteurized cow milk (10) and powdered milk (8) showed that 80% of tested samples were contaminated with various levels of AFM1 ranging from >20 to 765 ng/l. Percentages of AFM1-contaminated samples exceeding the American, Syrian and European tolerance limits were 22%, 38% and 52%, respectively.The range of contamination was relatively higher in pasteurized milk than in raw cow and sheep milk. 80% of AFM1-contaminated pasteurized cow milk samples exceeded the European tolerance limit with a range of contamination between 89 and 765 ng/l. Percentages of contaminated raw cow, sheep and goat milk exceeding the European tolerance limit were 59%, 24% and 14%, respectively.Milk powder was almost free of AFM1 contamination with only one sample containing a concentration lower than the European tolerance limit (12 ng/l).Extrapolation of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) from AFM1 levels of contamination in milk samples indicates that contamination in dairy cattle feeds may range from 0.5 to 47.8 μg/kg.     

Survey of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A occurrence in traditional meat products coming from Croatian households and markets

The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in different traditional meat products circulating on Croatian markets, produced by a large number of households situated in different Croatian regions. The study involved a total of 410 samples of traditional pork meat products in terms of hams (n = 105), dry fermented sausages (n = 208), bacon (n = 62) and cooked sausages (n = 35), collected over four years period (2011–2014). Mycotoxin concentrations were quantified and confirmed using validated immunoassay method (ELISA) and high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD), respectively. The maximal observed OTA level in the fermented sausages and hams was around 5 times (5.10 μg/kg) to 10 times (9.95 μg/kg) higher than the maximal recommended level (1 μg/kg) stipulated for pork products in some EU countries. AFB₁ levels found in any given meat product analysed within this frame were not significantly higher (p > 0.05) than the applied method limit of detection. The results showed an occasional mycotoxin contamination of traditional meat products, especially that by OTA, pointing that to avoid such contamination meat and meat products on households should be produced and processed under standardised and well-controlled conditions.     

Aflatoxin contamination in edible nuts imported in Qatar

Edible nuts imported in Qatar from June 1997 to December 1998 were anlaysed for aflatoxins. Eighty-one nut samples were analysed in the second half of 1997 and contamination was detected in 19 samples with total aflatoxin level varied from a low of about 0.53 to a high of 289 μg/kg. Aflatoxin contamination was detected in pistachios and peanuts, while other nuts such as almond, cashew nut, walnut and hazel nut were found free from aflatoxins. During 1998 testing was carried out only for pistachios and about 101 samples were analysed; contamination was detected in 48 samples with total aflatoxin level in the range of 1.2–275 μg/kg. In pistachios without shell level of contamination was very high (total aflatoxin 8.3–275 μg/kg) compared to pistachio with shell (total aflatoxin 1.2–75 μg/kg). Aflatoxin B₁ and B₂ were detected in all the contaminated samples of pistachios, whereas aflatoxin G₁ and G₂ were detected only in three samples of pistachios at the level of 0.8–1.9 μg/kg for aflatoxin G₁ and 0.4–1.3 μg/kg for aflatoxin G₂.     

Detection of aflatoxin B1 by aptamer-based biosensor using PAMAM dendrimers as immobilization platform

We report an aptamer-based biosensor for detection of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), a mycotoxin identified as contaminant in food. The sensor is assembled in a multilayer framework that utilizes cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) for acquiring the signal response by means of redox indicators: K[Fe(CN)₆]^−3/−4. Poly (amidoamine) dendrimers of fourth generation (PAMAM G4) immobilized on gold electrode covered by cystamine, were employed for attachment of single stranded amino-modified DNA aptamers specific to AFB₁. The cystamine-dendrimers (Cys-PAMAM) layers were compared with other immobilization platforms such as cystamine (Cys), 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid (MUA) and 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid-dendrimers (MUA-PAMAM), being the first approach the most appropriate for producing sensitive and reproducible signal in the range of concentrations 0.1–10 nM AFB₁. The sensor was validated in certified contaminated peanuts extract as well as in spiked samples of peanuts-corn snacks and the sensing response was evaluated and compared in terms of the matrix effect. The aptamer specificity was analyzed by testing the sensor in other mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B₂ (AFB₂) and ochratoxin A (OTA). The limit of detection achieved by this sensor was LOD = 0.40 ± 0.03 nM, it was regenerable in 0.2 M glycine-HCl and it did not lose its stability up to 60 h storing at 4 °C. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) studies were also performed for illustrating individual steps of biosensor assembly.     

Ethyl carbamate in alcoholic beverages from China: Levels,dietary intake,and risk assessment

A national survey of ethyl carbamate (EC) in alcoholic beverages from the fourth and fifth Chinese total diet study (TDS) performed in 2007 and 2009 was conducted for the first time. Alcoholic beverages samples were collected from 16 provinces representing the average dietary patterns of various provinces of China and covering about 60% of the total Chinese population. The results showed that the average EC level in alcoholic beverages (19.8 μg/kg) in the fifth TDS was higher than that of the fourth TDS (8.5 μg/kg). The dietary intake of EC from the Chinese population was estimated to be 8.27 ng/kg bw per day for average population and 45.67 ng/kg bw per day for high consumers (the 97.5th percentile) in the fifth TDS. The average and high-end estimated daily intakes of EC for the alcoholic beverages were both lower than estimated daily intake (EDI) value (80 ng/kg bw per day) suggested by JECFA, indicating low health risk of EC dietary exposure among Chinese adults at present.The Chinese rice wines, as a kind of traditional fermented alcoholic beverages in China, has a high level of EC and an obvious consumption regional disparity, thus the health risk of EC in Chinese rice wines should be of concern. To estimate the daily intake of EC from Chinese rice wines consumed in China, 890 Chinese rice wines samples including 468 commercial wines and 422 base wines were collected from various regions. The distribution of EC varied significantly among 468 commercial wines, ranging from 6.3 to 775.8 μg/L (mean: 232.9 μg/L). Based on the intake data for Chinese rice wines from the food consumption survey, the daily intake of EC was estimated to be 290.6 ng/kg bw per day for average consumers and 1848.4 ng/kg bw per day for high consumers (the 97.5th percentile). In this study, the estimated daily intake of EC for Chinese rice wines in China was far higher than EDI value suggested by JECFA indicating that Chinese rice wines were the main exposure origin of EC in alcoholic beverages. Health risk assessment of EC using a margin of exposure (MOE) approach recommended by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) suggested unlikely health concern with respect to current dietary intake of EC for alcoholic beverages in China. However, a relatively high health risk of EC dietary exposure in Chinese rice wines was observed in some provinces. Therefore, some adapted strategies should be developed and used in industrial scale to control the level of EC for Chinese rice wines.     

Exposure to ethyl carbamate in alcohol-drinking and nondrinking adults and its reduction by simple charcoal filtration

The risk of exposure to ethyl carbamate from the consumption of kimchi, soy sauce, and alcoholic beverages was assessed in alcohol-drinking and nondrinking adults. An alcohol-drinking adult obtains 5.6–9.2 ng/kg bw/day of ethyl carbamate through the addition of kimchi and soy sauce, while a nondrinking adult receives 3.3–4.0 ng/kg bw/day via kimchi and soy sauce alone. The average excess cancer risk of an alcohol-drinking adult (3.9 × 10^?7) was also twice higher than that of an adult who does not drink (1.9 × 10^?7). We achieved a maximum of 47% and 45% removal of the ethyl carbamate present in diluted spirits and soy sauce, respectively, through a simple charcoal filtration process. This resulted in a reduction of the average daily intakes of ethyl carbamate through diluted spirits and soy sauce from 1.7 and 2.2 ng/kg bw/day to 0.9 and 1.2 ng/kg bw/day, respectively.