DIAGENETIC CONTROLS ON THE RESERVOIR QUALITY OF TIGHT OIL-BEARING SANDSTONES IN THE UPPER TRIASSIC YANCHANG FORMATION,ORDOS BASIN,NORTH-CENTRAL CHINA

Tight oil-bearing sandstones in the Chang 4+5, 6 and 7 Members of the Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin, north-central China, in general consist of fine-grained, moderately- to poorly-sorted lithic arkoses (average Q₅₃F₃₀R₁₇) deposited in a fluvial-dominated lacustrine-deltaic environment. Diagenetic modifications to the sandstones include compaction and cementation by calcite, dolomite, ankerite, quartz, chlorite, kaolinite and illite, as well as partial dissolution of feldspars and minor rock fragments. Porosity ranges up to ~7% of the rock volume and was reduced more by cementation than by compaction. Fractures (tectonic macrofractures and diagenetic microfractures) provide important oil migration pathways and enhance the sandstones' storage potential. The pore network is heterogeneous due to processes related to deposition and diagenesis, and there are considerable spatial variations in porosity and pore connectivity. The pore system includes both macropores and micropores, and pore network variations depend on the type and distribution of authigenic cements. An analysis of the diagenetic and porosity characteristics of core samples of the Yanchang Formation sandstones from wells in the Youfangzhuang oilfield resulted in the recognition of six petrofacies (A-F) whose characteristics allow reservoir quality to be predicted. Fluid performance analysis for selected sandstone samples using nuclear magnetic resonance combined with helium porosity and air permeability shows that high permeability and large pore throats together result in high movable fluid saturation potential, and that effective pore spaces and throats are beneficial for hydrocarbon storage and flow. Relatively higher porosity and permeability tend to occur in petrofacies B sandstones containing abundant pore-lining chlorite with lesser kaolinite and minor carbonate cements, and in petrofacies C sandstones with abundant pore-filling kaolinite cement but little chlorite and carbonate cements. These petrofacies represent the best reservoir-quality intervals. A reservoir quality prediction model is proposed combined with the petrofacies classification framework. This model will assist future development of tight sandstone reservoirs both in the Upper Triassic Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin and elsewhere.     

Effects of composition, texture and diagenesis on porosity, permeability and oil recovery in a sandstone reservoir

Relationship among depositional texture, composition, diagenesis, porosity, permeability, initial water saturations and residual oil saturations have been investigated in a set of sandstone samples from a North American oil reservor. Pointcount, compositional and textural data obtained from thin sections were used.Grain size, sorting and mineralogy are closely interrelated. As grain size increases, sorting decreases and the proportion of readily soluble detrial grains increases.The type and extent of diagenetic alteration is related to grain size. Silica cement as overgrowths is more common in finer-grained sandstones with abundant monocrystalline quartz, whereas carbonate cement is more common in coarsergrained sandstones. Carbonate dissolution is extensive in some intervals in the reservoir.Sandstone samples were subdivided into tow subgroups in which relationshiops among grain size, porosity and permeability are significantly different: Sandstones with less than 13% porosity are strongly influenced by carbonate cement which controls porosity and permeability, independently of variations of grain size and sorting. Sandstones having porosity greater than 13% have undergone extensive carbonate dissolution, and coarse-grained sandstones have more secondary porosity than the finer-grained due to dissolution of unstable constituents. Both porosity and permeability are positively correlated with grain size in these samples.Initial (connate) water saturation increases with grain size because of the strong correlation between increasing grain size and polycrystalline grains which have intra-grain microporosity. Increasing heterogeneity with increasing grain size is thought to contribute to higher residual oil saturations in coarser-grained, more poorly sorted sandstones. A decrease in oil recovery efficiency with increasing grain size and permeability may be predicted for other sandstone reservoir rocks deposited in similar types of environments.     

RESERVOIR POTENTIAL OF THE MAASTRICHTIAN PAB SANDSTONE IN THE EASTERN SULAIMAN FOLD-BELT,PAKISTAN

The hard, resistant, generally cliff-forming Pab Sandstone Formation of Maastrichtian age is well exposed in parts of the eastern Sulaiman Fold-Belt. Thin-section, XRD and SEM studies of 66 samples from seven outcrops extending 200 km along strike were made in order to assess the reservoir quality of this formation. Petrographic studies indicated that the sandstones, classified as quartz arenites (locally subarkose), are texturally and mineralogically mature. The proportion of potassium feldspar varied from trace to 16%, and this mineral was confined to certain stratigraphic zones. Alteration of feldspars to clay minerals was common, particularly in the south of the study area. Plagioclase, heavy minerals, and lithic fragments were present in minor amounts. Diagenetic kaolinite, illite and chlorite were common, with kaolinite being the most abundant. Quartz overgrowths constitute the dominant cement. The reservoir quality of the formation largely depends on the composition of the sandstone, and its susceptibility to chemical alteration. Most of the porosity (up to 16%) results from the dissolution of feldspar grains; dissolution was restricted to the south of the study area, and the feldspars in the north show little alteration and no dissolution. Reservoir potential has also been influenced by the substantial input of silica-rich solutions that completely destroyed the primary porosity of the sandstone. The observed porosity is mostly secondary, commonly formed by dissolution of feldspar grains, and occasionally cement/matrix. The sequence of diagenetic events is, from oldest to youngest: formation of pyrite; formation of early-stage calcite; formation of dolomite; silica cementation; formation of clays; precipitation of late-stage calcite; feldspar dissolution; and formation of iron oxides. The textural and mineralogical maturity, coupled with local well-developed secondary porosity, may make the Pab Sandstone Formation a good reservoir rock.     

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF SANDSTONE RESERVOIRS IN THE EAST SLOVAKIAN BASIN, PART 2: ZEOLITES AND CLAY MINERALS

Zeolites and authigenic/diagenetic clay minerals in Neogene sandstones of the East Slovakian Basin are closely related to the presence of locally-abundant tuffs and tuffaceous sediments. In tuffs, plagioclase crystals, glass shards, and volcanic rock fragments alter to zeolites and clay minerals. In sandstones, zeolites are formed both from the direct alteration of volcanic rock fragments, and as authigenic pore-filling minerals; clay minerals occur as diagenetic products of both volcanics and feldspars. Zeolites present include erionite, clinoptilolite, mordenite, analcime, and minor offretite, phillipsite, and laumontite. Authigenic/diagenetic clay minerals include smectite, illite, chlorite, and kaolinite. Vertical and lateral distributions of authigenic/ diagenetic mineral assemblages tend to follow published models. A complete paragenetic model of the occurrences of these minerals within the basin is not currently possible with the present, limited database.
Diagenetic/authigenic mineral suites in sandstone hydrocarbon reservoirs present special problems for exploration and production technology. These problems include: (1) well-log distortions; (2) reservoir permeability reduction through diagenesis; and (3) reduction of permeability through interactions between diagenetic clay minerals and zeolites and incompatible fluid systems. Recognition of problematic mineral suites in this study allows for the application of accepted technological solutions, which in turn could result in the increase of recoverable reserves in addition to those added by exploration efforts.     

四川盆地上三叠统砂岩成岩作用及其对孔隙的控制

四川盆地上三叠统不仅是一个含煤层系,也是一个有良好前景的含油(气)组合,已在多处获得工业油、气井(藏)。储集岩主要是须家河组的须二段和须四段的砂岩,其次是须三段、须五段和小塘子组的砂岩。近6000块砂岩物性分析,平均孔隙度6.8%,渗透率0.7毫达西,通常小于1毫达西。对某气田70余块砂岩所做的压汞分析,平均孔喉直径0.566微米。显然,它们主要属于细-微毛细管孔隙类型。何以形成如此低的孔、渗性呢?与其沉积环境和成岩作用有关。     

东营凹陷古近系红层储层成岩作用特征及形成机制

东营凹陷古近系孔店组一段（简称孔一段）-沙河街组四段下亚段（简称沙四下亚段）沉积时期发育了规模巨大的干旱气候条件下形成的红层沉积。综合利用钻井岩心、铸体薄片、物性及黏土矿物资料,并结合盆地埋藏演化史,对储层成岩作用特征及成因机制进行了系统研究。储层具有多重碱性成岩环境和酸性成岩环境作用特征。压实作用中等偏强,热压实效应明显。胶结物类型主要包括碳酸盐、铁碳酸盐、石膏、硬石膏和自生石英等,胶结作用在砂体边缘强,砂体内部较弱,砂体中部胶结物含量由断块下部向断块上部逐渐增加。溶解作用主要为碱性环境下形成的石英溶解和酸性环境下形成的长石、碳酸盐胶结物溶解,溶蚀孔隙含量由砂体边缘向砂体内部逐渐增加,由断块下部向断块上部逐渐降低。交代作用主要为碳酸盐、硫酸盐胶结物交代石英、长石颗粒及石英加大、铁碳酸盐交代碳酸盐。红层储层经历了早期碳酸盐及石膏胶结、早期石英溶解→长石及碳酸盐胶结物溶解、自生石英胶结→晚期碳酸盐及硬石膏胶结、晚期石英溶解→晚期少量碳酸盐胶结物、长石溶解的成岩演化序列。多重碱性及酸性成岩环境交替演化和上升流作用机制控制了储层的发育。     

川中广安气田须家河组储集特征及对油气分布的影响

根据38口井岩石学、物性等相关资料,研究了广安地区上三叠统须家河组砂岩储层特征,分析了不同含气层岩石类型,探讨了成岩作用对气藏分布的控制。研究区须家河储层岩石类型呈现结构成熟度中等,成份成熟度较低的特点,以岩屑长石砂岩、长石石英砂岩和长石岩屑砂岩为主;从须二段到须六段,岩石成分在变化,岩屑含量逐渐增多;富气砂岩主要为长石岩屑砂岩。砂岩储层物性整体属于低孔、低渗特征,主要发育粒间溶孔、残余粒间孔、粒内溶孔,其中粒间溶孔、残余原生粒间孔发育程度的好坏直接影响到储层的储集能力。研究区存在石英加大—绿泥石衬边、石英加大—溶蚀、绿泥石衬边—溶蚀、绿泥石衬边—碳酸盐胶结和石英加大—碳酸盐胶结等6大类成岩相。绿泥石衬边—溶蚀相和石英加大—溶蚀相为最好的成岩相类型,研究区须家河组气井都分布在该2类成岩相中。     

层序地层格架内成岩作用——以饶阳凹陷中南部沙河街组三段砂岩为例

充分利用薄片分析和钻、测井资料以及前人层序地层学研究成果,从层序界面对成岩特征的控制以及不同体系域内的成岩作用发育规律2个方面探讨饶阳凹陷中南部沙河街组三段层序地层格架内的砂岩成岩作用特征。研究结果表明:层序界面控制了界面之下砂岩的溶蚀和碳酸盐胶结作用,但并没有作为流体运移的优势通道促进界面之上砂岩的溶蚀作用;低位体系域砂岩砂泥混杂,抗压实能力差,原生孔隙不易保存,且早期碳酸盐胶结物易从过饱和的碱性水体中沉淀;湖侵体系域砂岩粒度细,但分选较好,在早成岩阶段原生孔隙可得到一定保存,且与烃源岩直接接触,易于接受有机酸溶蚀形成次生孔隙;高位体系域砂岩颗粒较粗、分选好,沉积物抗压实能力强,埋藏相对较浅,原生孔隙容易保存,且受上覆的层序界面影响,在成岩早期接受大气淡水淋滤形成次生孔隙,加之后期有机酸的充注可进一步促进其溶蚀,因而储层质量最好。研究中提出了不同体系域砂岩经历的同生成岩、早成岩和中成岩阶段的成岩共生序列和成岩演化模式,表征了层序地层格架内的成岩作用特征,可实现优质储层的对比追踪。     

柴北缘冷湖—马仙地区古近系—新近系成岩作用特征

运用岩心、铸体薄片、扫描电镜和化验资料等,系统研究了柴达木盆地北缘冷湖—马仙地区古近系—新近系成岩作用特征及其对储层物性的影响。研究表明,柴北缘冷湖—马仙地区古近系—新近系储集砂岩主要为岩屑长石砂岩、长石砂岩和长石岩屑砂岩。主要成岩作用为压实作用、胶结作用和溶蚀作用。压实作用以机械压实为主;胶结作用主要为碳酸盐胶结、硫酸盐胶结、石英次生加大和黏土矿物胶结;溶蚀作用主要为碳酸盐岩和碎屑颗粒的溶蚀。压实作用和胶结作用是原生孔隙减少以及储层物性变差的主要原因。碎屑颗粒和胶结物的溶蚀是次生孔隙形成的主要原因。     

内蒙乌兰格尔地区上古生界砂岩的成岩作用

内蒙乌兰格尔地区的上古生界厚逾400m,大部分砂岩属于致密型低孔渗性的岩体。本文主要论述这些砂岩的成岩作用及其对储层孔渗性的影响。记砂岩具有四个成岩阶段:1.机械压实作用和早期胶结作用;2.碳酸盆的胶结作用和交代作用;3.溶蚀作用;4.晚期自生粘土矿物的形成和早期粘土矿物的重结晶作用。其中强烈的机械压实作用减少砂岩的孔隙,碳酸盆矿物的胶结作用尤其显著地减少了孔隙度和渗透率。但是,胶结物和部分颗粒的后期溶蚀作用是改善某些层段储集性能的有利因素。