SOURCE ROCK QUALITY VARIATIONS OF UPPER JURASSIC – LOWERMOST CRETACEOUS MARINE SHALES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO OILS IN THE VALDEMAR FIELD,DANISH NORTH SEA

The main source rocks for the hydrocarbons at the Valdemar field (Danish North Sea) are the Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous organic-rich marine shales of the Farsund Formation. However, geochemical analyses of retained petroleum in reservoir cores show variations in oil type and maturity which indicate a complex charging history. This paper reviews the organofacies and source rock quality variations in 55 samples of the Farsund Formation from the North Jens-1 well (Valdemar field) within a sequence stratigraphic framework in order to discuss the source of the hydrocarbons. Petrographic and geochemical data, including biomarker analyses, were integrated in order to characterize the kerogen composition, original source rock potential and depositional environment of the Farsund Formation. The thermal maturity, source rock quality and kerogen quality all vary at the sequence level, and in general change upwards from early mature, primarily gas-prone Type II kerogen in the Kimmeridgian Kimm-2 and Kimm-3 sequences to immature, highly oil-prone sapropelic Type II kerogen in the Volg-4 and Ryaz-1 sequences (Volgian, Ryazanian). The kerogen has a maceral composition dominated by fluorescing amorphous organic matter (AOM) and liptodetrinite, with variable but generally minor amounts of terrigenous organic matter. The stratigraphic distribution of organic matter is similar to that in regional observations from the Danish Central Graben but minor differences occur, especially in the amount of fluorescing AOM in the Kimmeridgian sequences. The decrease in terrigenous input (vitrinite) upwards through the marine shale succession likely reflects a marine transgression of the Danish Central Graben area during Late Jurassic time. The source potential of the Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous shales in the North Jens-1 well is generally lower than that observed regionally, including an absence of relatively organic-rich, oil-prone intervals in the older part of the succession which have been demonstrated to occur elsewhere in the Danish Central Graben. However, in agreement with the regional trend, back-calculated source rock data and calculated Ultimate Expulsion Potentials show that the uppermost Volgian (Volg-4) and Ryazanian (Ryaz-1) sequences are the most oil-prone intervals. The Ryaz-1 sequence represents a condensed section formed during a period characterised by low sedimentation rates and high preservation of algal organic matter. Biomarker compositions from source rock extracts from the North Jens-1 well cannot be directly correlated to Valdemar reservoir oils, suggesting that the mature organofacies which charged the oils are not represented in the samples from North Jens-1.     

OIL FAMILY TYPING,BIODEGRADATION AND SOURCE ROCK AFFINITY OF LIQUID PETROLEUM IN THE DANISH NORTH SEA

Variations in liquid petroleum compositions in the Danish Central Graben and Siri Fairway, North Sea, demonstrate the presence of several active source rock facies. To address this issue in detail, a total of 213 samples of liquid petroleum from the Danish Central Graben and the Siri Fairway were typed to eight main oil families and three sub‐families based on characteristic geochemical properties and principal component analysis (PCA). Comparison with source rock extract data made it possible to suggest correlative source rocks for each oil family together with the source rock depositional environments. The main oil families are: 1(B), 2(B), 3a(B), 3b(B), 4(B‐D/E), 5(D/E‐B), 6(D/E‐F) and 7(A), where the capital letters in brackets refer to the organofacies types of Pepper and Corvi (1995), thus directly linking the oil family type to the source rock facies. Oil families 1(B), 2(B), 3a(B) and 3b(B) were charged from marine shales (principally the Upper Jurassic Farsund Formation); oil families 4(B‐D/E) and 5(D/E‐B) are mixed petroleums with both terrigenous and marine components; oil family 6(D/E‐F) was charged from Middle Jurassic coaly units; whereas oil family 7(A) was charged from a carbonate source (Zechstein dolomites). Family 7(A) has only been documented in the form of oil stains. The most widespread oil family is 3a(B), sourced from Upper Jurassic marine shales. Charging from different organofacies is indicated by oil family 3b(B), which was derived from parts of the same shale succession which were more terrigenous‐influenced and possibly slightly more oxic; and families 2(B) and 1(B), which were sourced from more organic‐rich, anoxic parts of the shales. Mildly biodegraded oils (Level 1 to 2) appear mainly to occur in the central to southern parts of the Danish Central Graben.     

A REVIEW OF THE COALY SOURCE ROCKS AND GENERATED PETROLEUMS IN THE DANISH NORTH SEA: AN UNDEREXPLORED MIDDLE JURASSIC PETROLEUM SYSTEM?

This paper reviews the Middle Jurassic petroleum system in the Danish Central Graben with a focus on source rock quality, fluid compositions and distributions, and the maturation and generation history. The North Sea including the Danish Central Graben is a mature oil province where the primary source rock is composed of Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous marine shales. Most of the shale‐sourced structures have been drilled and, to accommodate continued value creation, additional exploration opportunities are increasingly considered in E&P strategies. Triassic and Jurassic sandstone plays charged from coaly Middle Jurassic source rocks have proven to be economically viable in the North Sea. In the Danish‐Norwegian Søgne Basin, coal‐derived gas/condensate is produced from the Harald and Trym fields and oil from the Lulita field; the giant Culzean gas‐condensate field is under development in the UK Central North Sea; and in the Norwegian South Viking Graben, coal‐derived gas and gas‐condensate occur in several fields. The coaly source rock of the Middle Jurassic petroleum system in the greater North Sea is included in the Bryne/Lulu Formations (in Denmark), the Pentland Formation (in the UK), and the Sleipner and Hugin Formations in Norway. In the Danish Central Graben, the coal‐bearing unit is composed of coals, coaly shales and carbonaceous shales, has a regional distribution and can be mapped seismically as the ‘Coal Marker’. The coaly source rocks are primarily gas‐prone but the coals have an average Hydrogen Index value of c. 280 mg HC/g TOC and values above 300 mg HC/g TOC are not uncommon, which underpins the coals' capacity to generate liquid hydrocarbons (condensate and oil). The coal‐sourced liquids are differentiated from the common marine‐sourced oils by characteristic biomarker and isotope compositions, and in the Danish Central Graben are grouped into specific oil families composed of coal‐sourced oil and mixed oils with a significant coaly contribution. Similarly, the coal‐sourced gases are recognized by a normally heavier isotope signature and a relatively high dryness coefficient compared to oil‐associated gas derived from marine shales. The coal‐derived and mixed coaly gases are likewise assigned to well‐defined gas families. Coal‐derived liquids and gas discoveries and shows in Middle Jurassic strata suggest that the coaly Middle Jurassic petroleum system has a regional distribution. A 3D petroleum systems model was constructed covering the Danish Central Graben. The model shows that present‐day temperatures for the Middle Jurassic coal source rock ('Coal Marker') are relatively high (>150 °C) throughout most of the Danish Central Graben, and expulsion of hydrocarbons from the ‘Coal Marker’ was initiated in Late Jurassic time in the deep Tail End Graben. In the Cretaceous, the area of mature coaly source rocks expanded, and at present day nearly the whole area is mature. Hydrocarbon expulsion rates were low in the Paleocene to Late Oligocene, followed by significant expulsion in the Miocene up to the present day. High Middle Jurassic reservoir temperatures prevent biodegradation.     

西藏波林盆地侏罗—白垩系海相烃源岩评价

波林盆地位于青藏高原西南缘,面积约30 000 km2,是高原内勘探程度极低的海相含油气盆地之一。通过对盆地内烃源岩展布特征以及实测剖面的烃源岩有机质丰度、类型和热演化成熟度等有机地球化学参数的分析,认为该盆地存在2套主要烃源岩:上侏罗统门卡墩组黑色页岩厚达432 m,主要沉积于外陆棚环境,残余有机碳含量在0.67%~1.62%,平均1.03%,经过有机质恢复后有机碳含量在0.91%~2.40%,平均1.48%;岗巴群黑色页岩厚度56 m,为一套外陆棚沉积,残余有机碳含量在0.7%~1.08%,平均0.86%;恢复后有机碳含量在0.96%~1.60%,平均1.21%。2套烃源岩都以Ⅱ1型有机质为主,达到高—过成熟阶段,属于盆地内的好烃源岩。因此,该盆地有较丰富的油气生成的物质基础,具有较好的油气勘探前景。     

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MIDDLE JURASSIC COALY AND LACUSTRINE AND UPPER JURASSIC – LOWERMOST CRETACEOUS MARINE SOURCE ROCKS IN THE SØGNE BASIN,NORTH SEA

The Søgne Basin in the Danish‐Norwegian Central Graben is unique in the North Sea because it has been proven to contain commercial volumes of hydrocarbons derived only from Middle Jurassic coaly source rocks. Exploration here relies on the identification of good quality, mature Middle Jurassic coaly and lacustrine source rocks and Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous marine source rocks. The present study examines source rock data from almost 900 Middle Jurassic and Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous samples from 21 wells together with 286 vitrinite reflectance data from 14 wells. The kerogen composition and kinetics for bulk petroleum formation of three Middle Jurassic lacustrine samples were also determined. Differences in kerogen composition between the coaly and marine source rocks result in two principal oil windows: (i) the effective oil window for Middle Jurassic coaly strata, located at ～3800 m and spanning at least ～650 m; and (ii) the oil window for Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous marine mudstones, located at ～3250 m and spanning ～650 m. A possible third oil window may relate to Middle Jurassic lacustrine deposits. Middle Jurassic coaly strata are thermally mature in the southern part of the Søgne Basin and probably also in the north, whereas they are largely immature in the central part of the basin. HI_max values of the Middle Jurassic coals range from ～150–280 mg HC/g TOC indicating that they are gas‐prone to gas/oil‐prone. The overall source rock quality of the Middle Jurassic coaly rocks is fair to good, although a relatively large number of the samples are of poor source rock quality. At the present day, Middle Jurassic oil‐prone or gas/oil‐prone rocks occur in the southern part of the basin and possibly in a narrow zone in the northern part. In the remainder of the basin, these deposits are considered to be gas‐prone or are absent. Wells in the northernmost part of the Søgne Basin / southernmost Steinbit Terrace encountered Middle Jurassic organic–rich lacustrine mudstones with sapropelic kerogen, high HI values reaching 770 mg HC/g TOC and E_a‐distributions characterised by a single dominant E_a‐peak. The presence of lacustrine mudstones is also suggested by a limited number of samples with HI values above 300 mg HC/g TOC in the southern part of the basin; in addition, palynofacies demonstrate a progressive increase in the abundance and areal extent of lacustrine and brackish open water conditions during Callovian times. A regional presence of oil‐prone Middle Jurassic lacustrine source rocks in the Søgne Basin, however, remains speculative. Middle Jurassic kitchen areas may be present in an elongated palaeo‐depression in the northern part of the Søgne Basin and in restricted areas in the south. Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous mudstones are thermally mature in the central, western and northern parts of the basin; they are immature in the eastern part towards the Coffee Soil Fault, and overmature in the southernmost part. Only a minor proportion of the mudstones have HI values >300 mg HC/g TOC, and the present‐day source rock quality is for the best samples fair to good. In the south and probably also in most of the northern part of the Søgne Basin, the mudstones are most likely gas‐prone, whereas they may be gas/oil‐prone in the central part of the basin. A narrow elongated zone in the northern part of the basin may be oil‐prone. The marine mudstones are, however, volumetrically more significant than the Middle Jurassic strata. Possible Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous kitchen areas are today restricted to the central Søgne Basin and the elongated palaeo‐depression in the north.     

STRATIGRAPHY AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF THE CROATIAN PART OF THE ADRIATIC BASIN

Coastal parts of Croatia are dominated by the SW‐verging Dinaric foldbelt, to the west and SW of which is the Adriatic Basin (the stable foreland). In both areas, the stratigraphic column is dominated by a thick carbonate succession ranging from Carboniferous to Miocene. Four megasequences have been identified: (i) a pre‐platform succession ranging in age from Late Carboniferous (Middle Pennsylvanian: Moscovian) to Early Jurassic (Early Toarcian; Bru?ane and Ba?ke Ostarije Formations); (ii) an Early Jurassic to Late Cretaceous platform megasequence (Mali Alan Formation); (iii) a Paleogene to Neogene post‐platform megasequence (Ra?a Formation); and (iv) a Neogene to Quaternary (Pliocene to Holocene) megasequence (Istra and Ivana Formations). A number of organic‐rich intervals with source rock potential have been identified on‐ and offshore Croatia: Middle and Upper Carboniferous, Upper Permian, Lower and Middle Triassic, Lower and Upper Jurassic, Lower and Upper Cretaceous, Eocene, and Pliocene – Pleistocene. Traps and potential plays have been identified from seismic data in the Dinaric belt and adjacent foreland. Evaporites of Permian, Triassic and Neogene (Messinian) ages form potential regional seals, and carbonates with secondary porosity form potential reservoirs. Oil and gas shows in wells in the Croatian part of the Adriatic Basin have been recorded but no oil accumulations of commercial value have yet been discovered. In the northern Adriatic offshore Croatia, Pliocene hemi‐pelagic marlstones and shales include source rocks which produce commercial volumes of biogenic gas. The gas is reservoired in unconsolidated sands of the Pleistocene Ivana Formation.     

OIL CHARGE HISTORY OF BITUMENS OF DIFFERING MATURITIES IN EXHUMED PALAEOZOIC RESERVOIR ROCKS AT TIANJINGSHAN,NW SICHUAN BASIN,SOUTHERN CHINA

Low‐maturity soft bitumen (or biodegraded heavy oil) and higher maturity solid bitumen are present in Palaeozoic siliciclastics at Tianjingshan in the NW Sichuan Basin, southern China. The origin of these bitumens of variable maturities was investigated. Samples of low‐maturity bitumen from Lower Devonian sandstones and high‐ and low‐maturity bitumen from Upper Cambrian siltstones were analysed to investigate their organic geochemistry and stable isotope compositions. Lower Cambrian and Upper Permian black shales were also investigated to assess their source rock potential, and the burial and maturation history of potential source rocks was modelled using PetroMod. Liquid and gaseous hydrocarbon fluid inclusions in the Devonian sandstones were analysed. Results suggest that both the soft and solid bitumens are derived from crude oil generated by Lower Cambrian organic‐rich black shales. Reservoir rocks at Tianjingshan have experienced two separate oil charge events – in the early‐middle Triassic and early‐middle Jurassic, respectively. The first oil charge was generated by Lower Cambrian black shales in a kitchen area located in the hanging wall of the Tianjingshan fault. The later oil charge was also derived from Lower Cambrian black shales, but the kitchen area was located in the footwall of the fault. Movement on the Tianjingshan fault resulted in progressive burial of the Lower Devonian sandstone reservoir rocks until the end of the middle Triassic, and the “early” charged oil was thermally degraded into high‐maturity solid bitumen. The later‐charged oil was altered into soft bitumen of lower maturiy by biodegradation during uplift of the reservoir after the Jurassic.     

青藏高原羌塘盆地海相烃源层的沉积形成环境

羌塘盆地是青藏高原一个最大的中生代海相残留盆地。上三叠统在南、北坳陷为次深海盆地相沉积,发育一套黑色页岩烃源层;下侏罗统和中侏罗统下部为半温暖半干热—温暖炎热气候,在南坳陷南部局部地区也发育了浅海—次深海盆地相黑色页岩烃源层;中侏罗统中部和上侏罗统下部海侵规模扩大,以碳酸盐岩台地沉积为主,台地凹陷是形成烃源岩的主要场所;中侏罗统上部是一套滨海—浅海碎屑岩沉积,泻湖亚相页岩和前三角洲亚相泥岩为主要烃源岩。羌塘盆地中生界海相烃源岩的沉积发育特征与国内外碳酸盐岩大油气田的烃源岩发育特征基本一致,主要是深海—次深海盆地相沉积的黑色页岩、台地凹陷沉积泥灰岩和页岩、泻湖亚相或前三角洲亚相等沉积的页岩(油页岩)和泥岩。      

AN OVERVIEW OF THE PETROLEUM SYSTEMS IN THE IONIAN ZONE,ONSHORE NW GREECE AND ALBANIA

The Ionian and Gavrovo Zones in the external Hellenide fold‐and‐thrust belt of western Greece are a southern extension of the proven Albanian oil and gas province. Two petroleum systems have been identified here: a Mesozoic mainly oil‐prone system, and a Cenozoic system with gas potential. Potential Mesozoic source rocks include organic‐rich shales within Triassic evaporites and dissolution‐collapse breccias; marls at the base of the Early Jurassic (lower Toarcian) Ammonitico Rosso; the Lower and Upper Posidonia beds (Toarcian–Aalenian and Callovian–Tithonian respectively); and the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian–Turonian) Vigla Shales, part of the Vigla Limestone Formation. These potential source rocks contain Types I‐II kerogen and are mature for oil generation if sufficiently deeply buried. The Vigla Shales have TOC up to 2.5% and good to excellent hydrocarbon generation potential with kerogen Type II. Potential Cenozoic gas‐prone source rocks with Type III kerogen comprise organic‐rich intervals in Eocene–Oligocene and Aquitanian–Burdigalian submarine fan deposits, which may generate biogenic gas. The complex regional deformation history of the external Hellenide foldbelt, with periods of both crustal extension and shortening, has resulted in the development of structural traps. Mesozoic extensional structures have been overprinted by later Hellenide thrusts, and favourable trap locations may occur along thrust back‐limbs and in the crests of anticlines. Trapping geometries may also be provided by lateral discontinuities in the basal detachment in the thin‐skinned fold‐and‐thrust belt, or associated with strike‐slip fault zones. Regional‐scale seals are provided by Triassic evaporites, and Eocene‐Oligocene and Neogene shales. Onshore oil‐ and gasfields in Albania are located in the Peri‐Adriatic Depression and Ionian Zone. Numerous oil seeps have been recorded in the Kruja Zone but no commercial hydrocarbon accumulations. Source rocks in the Ionian Zone comprise Upper Triassic – Lower Jurassic carbonates and shales of Middle Jurassic, Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous ages. Reservoir rocks in both oil‐ and gas‐fields in general consist of silicilastics in the Peri‐Adriatic Depression succession and the underlying Cretaceous–Eocene carbonates with minimal primary porosity improved by fracturing in the Albanian Ionian Zone. Oil accumulations in thrust‐related structures are sealed by the overlying Oligocene flysch whereas seals for gas accumulations are provided by Upper Miocene–Pliocene shales. Thin‐kinned thrusting along flysch décollements, resulting in stacked carbonate sequences, has clearly been demonstrated on seismic profiles and in well data, possibly enhanced by evaporitic horizons. Offshore Albania in the South Adriatic basin, exploration targets in the SW include possible compressional structures and topographic highs proximal to the relatively unstructured boundary of the Apulian platform. Further to the north, there is potential for oil accumulations both in the overpressured siliciclastic section and in the underlying deeply buried platform carbonates. Biogenic gas potential is related to structures in the overpressured Neogene (Miocene–Pliocene) succession.     

HYDROCARBON HABITAT OF THE SEDANO TROUGH,BASQUE‐CANTABRIAN BASIN,SPAIN

This paper analyzes the hydrocarbon habitat and potential of the Sedano trough in the SW sector of the Basque‐Cantabrian Basin (northern Spain). The study is based on regional geological data, geochemical analyses, basin modelling simulations and play analysis techniques, and attempts to quantify by volumetric resource appraisal the volume of hydrocarbons generated, expelled and migrated from the main Sedano trough depocentre. A Lower Jurassic shale source rock has been identified and is responsible for the oil at Ayoluengo field, for the oil shows at the Polientes and Tozo wells, and for the Zamanzas and Basconcillos de Tozo tar sands which outcrop at the NE and SW margins of the Sedano trough respectively. Thermal history modelling indicates that petroleum generation and expulsion from the Lower Jurassic source rock started in the Sedano trough in the Early Cretaceous, with the main oil generation phase occurring in latest Cretaceous to Paleogene times. GC, GC‐MS and isotopic analyses of oils, tar sands and source rock extracts from the Sedano trough indicate good correlations between the Lower Jurassic source rock and the Ayoluengo oil, and tar sands from the basin margins. Petroleum plays and traps are abundant and are a result of a complex polyphase geological history. They can be grouped into:(i) early salt‐induced structural plays; (ii) later structural plays associated with a mid‐Tertiary compressional phase; and (iii) stratigraphic plays within the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous siliciclastic succession. A volumetric resource appraisal of the Lower Jurassic source rock indicates that a total of 11 billion bbl of oil could have been generated and expelled in the Sedano trough, and around 880 million bbl of oil have migrated into potential traps in 15 identified drainage areas. This results in a generation‐accumulation efficiency of 7%. Undiscovered resources have been estimated at 154 million bbl of oil, indicating that there is still moderate undiscovered hydrocarbon potential in the area.     

HYDROCARBONS IN THE MIDDLE MIOCENE JERIBE FORMATION,DYALA REGION,NE IRAQ

The Lower Miocene Jeribe Formation in northern and NE Iraq is composed principally of dolomitic limestones with typical porosity in the range of 10–24% and mean permeability of 30 mD. The formation serves as a reservoir for oil and gas at the East Baghdad field, gas at Mansuriya, Khashim Ahmar, Pulkhana and Chia Surkh fields, and oil at Injana, Gillabat, Qumar and Jambur. A regional seal is provided by the anhydrites of the Lower Fars (Fat'ha) Formation. For this study, oil samples from the Jeribe Formation at Jambur oilfield, Oligocene Baba Formation at Baba Dome (Kirkuk field) and Late Cretaceous Tanuma and Khasib Formations at East Baghdad field were analysed in order to investigate their genetic relationships. Graphical presentation of the analytical results (including plots of pristane/nC₁₇ versus phytane/nC_l8, triangular plots of steranes, tricyclic terpane scatter plots, and graphs of pristanelphytane versus carbon isotope ratio) indicated that the oils belong to a single oil family and are derived from kerogen Types II and III. The oils have undergone minor biodegradation and are of high maturity. They were derived from marine organic matter deposited with carbonate‐rich source rocks in suboxic‐anoxic settings. A range of biomarker ratios and parameters including a C₂₈/ C₂₉ sterane ratio of 0.9, an oleanane index of 0.2 and low tricyclic terpane values indicate a Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous age for the source rocks, and this age is consistent with palynomorph analyses. Potential source rocks are present in the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous Chia Gara Formation and the Middle Jurassic Sargelu Formation at the Jambur, Pulkhana, Qumar and Mansuriya fields; minor source rock intervals occur in the Balambo and Sarmord Formations. Hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from the Chia Gara Formation was indicated by pyrolysate organic matter, palynofacies type (A), and the maturity of Gleichenidites spores. Oil migration from the Chia Gara Formation source rocks (and minor oil migration from the Sargelu Formation) into the Jeribe Formation reservoirs took place along steeply‐dipping faults which are observed on seismic sections and which cut through the Upper Jurassic Gotnia Anhydrite seal. Migration is confirmed by the presence of asphalt residues in the Upper Cretaceous Shiranish Formation and by a high migration index (Rock Eval SI / TOC) in the Chia Gara Formation. These processes and elements together form a Jurassic/Cretaceous – Tertiary petroleum system whose top‐seal is the Lower Fars (Fat'ha) Formation anhydrite.     

济阳坳陷中生界烃源岩生烃演化

济阳坳陷中生界油气藏发育,但至今尚未对中生界烃源岩的生烃演化进行过系统研究,影响了对该区中生界油气的勘探。对该区进行了地球化学数据分析,结果表明:济阳坳陷中生界下—中侏罗统坊子组主要为沼泽相的煤系烃源岩,总体评价为差—较好烃源岩,以生气为主;下白垩统蒙阴组以湖相泥岩为主,有机质类型好,达到中等—好烃源岩的标准,应以生油为主;下白垩统西洼组和中—上侏罗统三台组为差—非烃源岩。利用镜质体反射率(Ro)数据,结合构造演化史动态分析了中生界烃源岩在不同地质时期生烃演化过程。结论认为:研究区中生界有机质经历过两期成熟演化过程,济阳坳陷次级凹陷的中生界烃源岩的二次生烃门限深度介于3000～3700m;主要生烃演化过程发生在新生代,具有较大的油气资源潜力。研究成果为该区中生界下一步勘探目标的选择提供了依据。     

SOURCE ROCK POTENTIAL OF ORGANIC‐RICH SHALES IN THE TERTIARY BHUBAN AND BOKA BIL FORMATIONS,BENGAL BASIN,BANGLADESH

Sandstones in the Miocene Bhuban and Lower Pliocene Boka Bil Formations contain all of the hydrocarbons so far discovered in the Bengal Basin, Bangladesh. Organic‐rich shale intervals in these formations have source rock potential and are the focus of the present study which is based on an analysis of 36 core samples from wells in eight gasfields in the eastern Bengal Basin. Kerogen facies and thermal maturity of these shales were studied using standard organic geochemical and organic petrographic techniques. Organic matter is dominated by Type III kerogen with lesser amounts of Type II. TOC is 0.16–0.90 wt % (Bhuban Formation) and 0.15–0.55 wt % (Boka Bil Formation) and extractable organic matter (EOM) is 132–2814 ppm and 235–1458 ppm, respectively. The hydrogen index is 20–181 mg HC/g TOC in the Bhuban shales and 35–282 mg HC/ g TOC in the Boka Bil shales. Vitrinite was the dominant maceral group observed followed by liptinite and inertinite. Gas chromatographic parameters including the C/S ratio, n‐alkane CPI, Pr/Ph ratio, hopane Ts/Tm ratio and sterane distribution suggest that the organic matter in both formations is mainly derived from terrestrial sources deposited in conditions which alternated between oxic and sub‐oxic. The geochemical and petrographic results suggest that the shales analysed can be ranked as poor to fair gas‐prone source rocks. The maturity of the samples varies, and vitrinite reflectance ranges from 0.48 to 0.76 %VR_r. Geochemical parameters support a maturity range from just pre‐ oil window to mid‐ oil window.     

LATE TO MIDDLE JURASSIC SOURCE FACIES AND QUALITY VARIATIONS, SOUTH VIKING GRABEN, NORTH SEA

Source facies and quality of the Late to Middle Jurassic source rock system in the South Viking Graben between 58°N and 60°15'N are highly variable both regionally and stratigraphically. In order to assess the degree of variability and to create a model of source rock quality and potential, isochore maps of the syn‐ and post‐rift sections of the Upper Jurassic Draupne Formation and underlying Heather Formation were generated from seismic and well data, and maturity‐corrected Rock‐Eval data were used to generate quantitative maps of oil and gas potential. The thin post‐rift section at the top of the Draupne Formation is a rich oil‐prone source, while the up to 1,600 m thick syn‐rift section contains a mixture of Type III and Type II material with substantial amounts of gas‐prone and inert organic matter. The Heather Formation, which reaches modelled thicknesses of up to 930 m, is a lean source and is generally gas‐prone. Detailed analyses and interpretations of biomarker and isotopic characteristics support this upward increase in oil‐prone Type II material. The analytical parameters include increasing relative amounts of C₂₇ regular steranes; decreasing ratios of C₃₀ moretane relative to C₃₀ hopane; and an increasing predominance of short chain n‐alkanes and progressively lighter isotopic values for saturate and aromatic fractions of source rock extracts. In addition, increasing amounts of 17α(H),21β(H)‐28,30‐bisnorhopane and decreasing amounts of C₃₄ homohopanes relative to C³⁵ homohopanes, as well as decreasing Pr/Ph ratios, suggest a general decrease in oxygenation upwards. Maps of average Pr/Ph ratios for the syn‐ and post‐rift Draupne Formation and for the Heather Formation are consistent with permanent water column stratification and gradual ascent of the O₂:H₂S interface from the Callovian to the Ryazanian. Interpretation of oil and gas potential maps, molecular parameters and estimates of sediment accumulation rates in combination suggest that the source facies of the upper, post‐rift Draupne Formation is controlled by widespread anoxia, reduced siliciclastic dilution and reduced input of gas‐prone organic and inert material; by contrast, the potential of the lower, syn‐rift Draupne Formation is strongly controlled by dilution by gas‐prone and inert organic matter resulting from mass flows and also by varying degrees of oxygenation. The oil and gas potential of the Heather Formation is mainly controlled by the degree of oxygenation and siliciclastic dilution.     

ORGANIC GEOCHEMISTRY,BURIAL HISTORY AND HYDROCARBON GENERATION MODELLING OF THE UPPER JURASSIC MADBI FORMATION,MASILA BASIN,YEMEN

The Masila Basin is an important hydrocarbon province in Yemen but the origin of its hydrocarbons is not fully understood. In this study, we evaluate Upper Jurassic source rocks in the Madbi Formation and assess the results of basin modelling in order to improve our understanding of burial history and hydrocarbon generation. This source rock has generated commercial volumes of hydrocarbons which migrated into Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous reservoir rocks. Cuttings samples of shales from the Upper Jurassic Madbi Formation from boreholes in the centre-west of the Masila Basin were analysed using organic geochemistry (Rock-Eval pyrolysis, extract analysis) and organic petrology. The shales generally contain more than 2.0 wt % TOC and have very good to excellent hydrocarbon potential. Kerogen is predominantly algal Type II with minor Type I. Thermal maturity of the organic matter is R_r 0.69–0.91%. Thermal and burial history models indicate that the Madbi Formation source rock entered the early-mature to mature stage in the Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary. Hydrocarbon generation began in the Late Cretaceous, reaching maximum rates during the Early Tertiary. Cretaceous subsidence had only a minor influence on source rock maturation and OM transformation.     

SOURCE ROCK POTENTIAL OF THE UPPER JURASSIC – LOWER CRETACEOUS SUCCESSION IN THE SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIAN BASIN,SOUTHERN IRAQ

This paper reports on the hydrocarbon potential of subsurface samples from the Upper Jurassic Lower Cretaceous succession at the Rumaila (North and South), Zubair, Subba and West Qurna oilfields in southern Iraq. A total of 37 fine‐grained core samples of the Sulaiy, Yamama, Ratawi and Zubair Formations from ten wells were analyzed. Contents of organic carbon and sulphur were measured; other analyses included Rock‐Eval pyrolysis, optical microscopy in incident light, solvent extraction and gas chromatography of non‐aromatic hydrocarbons. The results indicated that the samples from the Cretaceous succession (Yamama, Zubair and Ratawi Formations) are at moderate levels of thermal maturity, whereas samples from the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous Sulaiy Formation are at a stage of thermal maturity beyond peak oil generation. According to the results of this study, the Sulaiy Formation is an excellent highly‐mature source rock and it is probably responsible for the generation of large quantities of oil in the study area. The samples differ with respect to their organic fades and biomarker distribution, indicating that palaeo depositional conditions varied significantly.     

ORGANIC GEOCHEMISTRY OF OIL AND NATURAL GAS IN THE WEST DIKIRNIS AND EL‐TAMAD FIELDS,ONSHORE NILE DELTA,EGYPT: INTERPRETATION OF POTENTIAL SOURCE ROCKS

Crude oil in the West Dikirnis field in the northern onshore Nile Delta, Egypt, occurs in the poorly‐sorted Miocene sandstones of the Qawasim Formation. The geochemical composition and source of this oil is investigated in this paper. The reservoir sandstones are overlain by mudstones in the upper part of the Qawasim Formation and in the overlying Pliocene Kafr El‐Sheikh Formation. However TOC and Rock‐Eval analyses of these mudstones indicate that they have little potential to generate hydrocarbons, and mudstone extracts show little similarity in terms of biomarker compositions to the reservoired oils. The oils at West Dikirnis are interpreted to have been derived from an Upper Cretaceous – Lower Tertiary terrigenous, clay‐rich source rock, and to have migrated up along steeply‐dipping faults to the Qawasim sandstones reservoir. This interpretation is supported by the high C₂₉/C₂₇ sterane, diasterane/sterane, hopane/sterane and oleanane/C₃₀ hopane ratios in the oils. Biomarker‐based maturity indicators (Ts/Tm, moretanes/hopanes and C₃₂ homohopanes S/S+R) suggest that oil expulsion occurred before the source rock reached peak maturity. Previous studies have shown that the Upper Cretaceous – Lower Tertiary source rock is widely distributed throughout the on‐ and offshore Nile Delta. A wet gas sample from the Messinian sandstones at El‐Tamad field, located near to West Dikirnis, was analysed to determine its molecular and isotopic composition. The presence of isotopically heavy δ¹³ methane, ethane and propane indicates a thermogenic origin for the gas which was cracked directly from a humic kerogen. A preliminary burial and thermal history model suggests that wet gas window maturities in the study area occur within the Jurassic succession, and the gas at El‐Tamad may therefore be derived from a source rock of Jurassic age.     

四川盆地陆相页岩油成藏地质特征与重大发现

四川盆地下侏罗统发育陆相湖盆页岩,烃源岩品质好、有机质丰度高、页岩油资源丰富,以往研究主要关注自流井组大安寨段,其他层位研究较少。通过分析侏罗系页岩沉积环境、有机质丰度、类型、成熟度等地球化学特征,以及页岩储集性能、储集空间类型等地质条件,明确了下侏罗统湖相页岩油的地质特征及资源潜力。结果表明：四川盆地发育自流井组东岳庙段、大安寨段和凉高山组3套湖相页岩,页岩TOC含量一般大于1.0%;有机质类型为Ⅱ₁—Ⅱ₂型,3套页岩均具有较好的生烃潜力;R_o值为1.00%~1.82%,热演化程度为中等偏高。页岩厚度大、分布面积广,页岩平均孔隙度为4%~9%,页理缝发育。东岳庙段为平缓的广盆静水沉积环境;大安寨段为侏罗系最大湖泛期沉积,表现为深盆深水环境;凉高山组为广盆浅水环境。页岩发育纯页岩型、页岩-碳酸盐岩互层型、页岩-砂岩互层型3种组合样式。通过对页岩油富集层段进行评价,明确纵向上划分5个甜点段,平面上划分稀油区、轻质油区和凝析油气区3个区带。特别是平安1井等的重大发现,证实了四川盆地侏罗系具备良好的页岩油勘探开发潜力。     

内蒙古开鲁盆地陆东凹陷低熟石油地球化学特征

内蒙古开鲁盆地陆东凹陷发现了大量低熟石油。烃源岩地球化学特征表明，该区烃源岩具有高丰度低演化特点，主力生油层段是下白垩统九佛堂组上段（K1jf^上）的油页岩，该段油页岩处于低成熟阶段。油源对比分析认为，各含油构造的原油与K1jf^上烃源岩亲缘关系最为密切。对有机碳与产油潜量的相关性进行分析，证实了油页岩的早期成烃现象。热压模拟实验进一步证实了九佛堂组上段的油页岩为早期成烃的重要贡献层。在埋藏较浅、演化程度较低的中小型凹陷，油页岩发育区是油气勘探的重要领域。图10表8参18     

SOURCE ROCK POTENTIAL OF THE BLUE NILE (ABAY) BASIN, ETHIOPIA

The Blue Nile Basin, a Late Palaeozoic ‐ Mesozoic NW‐SE trending rift basin in central Ethiopia, is filled by up to 3000 m of marine deposits (carbonates, evaporites, black shales and mudstones) and continental siliciclastics. Within this fill, perhaps the most significant source rock potential is associated with the Oxfordian‐Kimmeridgian Upper Hamanlei (Antalo) Limestone Formation which has a TOC of up to 7%. Pyrolysis data indicate that black shales and mudstones in this formation have HI and S₂ values up to 613 mgHC/gCorg and 37.4 gHC/kg, respectively. In the Dejen‐Gohatsion area in the centre of the basin, these black shales and mudstones are immature for the generation of oil due to insufficient burial. However, in the Were Ilu area in the NE of the basin, the formation is locally buried to depths of more than 1,500 m beneath Cretaceous sedimentary rocks and Tertiary volcanics. Production index, T_max, hydrogen index and vitrinite reflectance measurements for shale and mudstone samples from this areas indicate that they are mature for oil generation. Burial history reconstruction and Lopatin modelling indicate that hydrocarbons have been generated in this area from 10Ma to the present day. The presence of an oil seepage at Were Ilu points to the presence of an active petroleum system. Seepage oil samples were analysed using gas chromatography and results indicate that source rock OM was dominated by marine material with some land‐derived organic matter. The Pr/Ph ratio of the seepage oil is less than 1, suggesting a marine depositional environment. n‐alkanes are absent but steranes and triterpanes are present; pentacyclic triterpanes are more abundant than steranes. The black shales and mudstones of the Upper Hamanlei Limestone Formation are inferred to be the source of the seepage oil. Of other formations whose source rock potential was investigated, a sample of the Permian Karroo Group shale was found to be overmature for oil generation; whereas algal‐laminated gypsum samples from the Middle Hamanlei Limestone Formation were organic lean and had little source potential