THE DISTRIBUTION OF OIL-AND GASFIELDS IN RELATION TO SATELLITE IMAGE INTERPRETATION: AN EXAMPLE FROM THE POLISH EAST CARPATHIANS AND THE ADJACENT FOREDEEP

The Polish East Carpathians consist of a series of nappes which have been thrust northwards onto the Miocene sedimentary fill of the Carpathian Foredeep, a foreland basin located between the Meta-Carpathian Swell to the north and the Carpathian orogen to the south. A total of 151 oil- and gasfields are present in the Polish Carpathians and the adjacent foredeep.
In the Carpathians, all the oilfields are related to structural traps such as anticlinal folds which are frequently cut by faults, thrusts and décollement planes. In the Carpathian Foredeep, oil and gas accumulations are located both within the Neogene interval and in the pre-Neogene basement. The most productive fields occur on the northern and southern margins of the Carpathian Foredeep; these locations received sandy detritus from the developing orogen to the south, and from the Meta-Carpathian ridge to the north.
In this paper, we compare the distribution of oil- and gasfields in the Polish Carpathians and the foreland basin to that of structural lineaments identified on Landsat imagery. Within the Carpathians, the lineaments are connected with fold axes, nappes, thrust slices and faults. In the Carpathian foredeep, by contrast, the lineaments must also be associated with faults, but no faults are indicated on surface geological maps. The simplest way to distinguish the faults is to interpret their presence in the pre-Tertiary basement, and to project them into the Miocene cover.
A satellite image of the study area was analysed independently by 40 different researchers, and the resulting interpretations were collated. With reference to this summary interpretation, we have attempted to analyse the spatial relationship between major lineaments and the distribution of oil- and gasfields in the study area.     

THE OLIGOCENE–MIOCENE MENILITE FORMATION IN THE UKRAINIAN CARPATHIANS: A WORLD‐CLASS SOURCE ROCK

This study investigates the hydrocarbon potential of Oligocene–Miocene shales in the Menilite Formation, the main source rock in the Ukrainian Carpathians. The study is based on the analysis of 233 samples collected from outcrops along the Chechva River in western Ukraine in order to analyse bulk parameters (TOC, Rock‐Eval), biomarkers and maceral composition. In Ukraine, the Menilite Formation is conventionally divided into Lower (Lower Oligocene), Middle (Upper Oligocene) and Upper (Lower Miocene) Members. The Early Oligocene and Early Miocene ages of the lower and upper members are confirmed by new nannoplankton data. The Lower Menilite Member is approximately 330 m thick in the study area and contains numerous chert beds and turbidite sandstones in its lower part together with organic‐rich black shales. The shales have a high content of silica which was probably derived from siliceous micro‐organisms. The TOC content of the shales frequently exceeds 20 wt.% and averages 9.76 wt.%. HI values range between 600 and 300 mgHC/gTOC (max. 800 mgHC/gTOC). The Middle Member contains thin black shale intervals but was not studied in detail. The Upper Member is about 1300 m thick in the study area and is composed mainly of organic‐rich shales. Chert layers are present near the base of the Member, and a prominent tuff horizon in the upper part represents a volcanic phase during shale deposition. The member grades into overlying molasse sediments. The average TOC content of the Upper Menilite succession is 5.17 wt.% but exceeds 20 wt.% near its base. Low T_max and vitrinite reflectance measurements for the Lower (419°C and 0.24–0.34 %R_r, respectively) and Upper (425°C and 0.26–0.32 %R_r, respectively) Menilite Member successions indicate thermal immaturity. Biomarker and maceral data suggest a dominantly marine (Type II) organic matter input mixed with varying amounts of land‐plant derived material, and indicate varying redox and salinity conditions during deposition. Determination of the Source Potential Index (SPI) shows that the Menilite Formation in the study area has the potential to generate up to 74.5 tons of hydrocarbons per m². The Chechva River outcrops therefore appear to have a significantly higher generation potential than other source rocks in the Paratethys realm. These very high SPI values for the Menilite Formation may explain why a relatively small area in Ukraine hosts about 70% of the known hydrocarbon reserves in the northern and eastern Carpathian fold‐thrust belt.     

ORGANIC GEOCHEMISTRY OF MIDDLE MIOCENE (BADENIAN – SARMATIAN) SOURCE ROCKS AND MATURATION MODELLING IN THE POLISH AND UKRAINIAN SECTORS OF THE EXTERNAL CARPATHIAN FOREDEEP

The Carpathian Foredeep to the north and NE of the Carpathian orogenic belt in SE Poland and NW Ukraine is divided into internal and external sectors. In the narrow internal foredeep, Lower and Middle Miocene shales, sandstones and interbedded evaporites are tightly folded. By contrast the external foredeep is characterized by the presence of a thick, unfolded Middle Miocene molasse succession. This ranges in thickness from a few hundred metres in the north of the external foredeep to >5000 m in the south, near the Carpathian thrust front. Middle Miocene sandstones in the external foredeep form a major reservoir for biogenic gas at fields in Poland and Ukraine. The Middle Miocene molasse succession in the external Carpathian Foredeep also contains organic-rich intervals which have source rock potential. For this paper, core samples (n = 670) of Badenian and Sarmatian mudstones from 43 boreholes in the Polish sector of the external foredeep were analysed to investigate their organic geochemistry and hydrocarbon potential. Results show that the samples analysed in general have low to fair (but locally high) total organic carbon (TOC) contents which range up 4.6 wt.% although the average is only 0.7 wt.%. Rock-Eval (S₁+S₂) values are poor to fair and the hydrogen index is also low with a mean value of less than 100 mg/g TOC. The samples analysed are dominated by gas-prone Type III kerogen and this is consistent with previous studies of time-equivalent samples from the Ukrainian part of the external foredeep. The organic matter is in general thermally immature and is interpreted to have been deposited in anoxic and/or sub-oxic conditions. However in the Polish part of the external foredeep, thermal maturities may locally reach the initial phase of the oil window where the Middle Miocene source rocks have been buried deeply beneath the Carpathian thrust front. The burial history and thermal evolution of the Middle Miocene succession were reconstructed by means of 1-D modelling at nine boreholes located in both the Polish and Ukrainian parts of the external Carpathian foredeep. The modelling indicated that Middle Miocene source rocks have only entered the initial phase of the oil window locally where they are buried beneath the flysch nappes of the Carpathian foldbelt. At these locations the generation of thermogenic gas may have begun at depths of more than 3 km. However, Middle Miocene source rocks are still immature at depths of >4000 m in some boreholes in the Ukrainian part of the study area. The absence of accumulations of thermogenic natural gas is consistent with the observed low levels of source rock maturity.     

THE VENEZUELAN HYDROCARBON HABITAT, PART 1: TECTONICS, STRUCTURE, PALAEOGEOGRAPHY AND SOURCE ROCKS

Venezuela forms part of an important hydrocarbon province, defined by the presence of prolific Cretaceous source rocks, which extends across northern South America. By early 1997, the country had produced 53 billion barrels of oil. Reserves are estimated to total 73 billion barrels of oil and 146 TCF of gas with 250 billion barrels recoverable in the Heavy Oil Belt. Most reserves are located within the intermontane Maracaibo and foreland Barinas‐Apure and Eastern Venezuela Basinx They correspond to more than 1.5 trillion BOE originally in place. The province's hydrocarbon history began with a broad passive margin over which the sea transgressed throughout much of the Cretaceous. Limestones and shales followed basal sands and included rich source rocks. Convergence between the distal part of the area and the Caribbean Plate created an active margin that migrated southwards, so that flysch and wildflysch followed the transgressive facies. The process culminated in Lute Cretaceous to Middle Eocene orogeny with the emplacement of southward‐vergent nappes and the development of northward‐deepening foredeeps. Flysch and wildflysch formed in the north while important deltaic—paralic reservoir sands accumulated in the south. Major phases of hydrocarbon generation from Jurassic‐Cretaceous source rocks occurred across the entire margin of northern South America during the orogeny. They are recorded by Jurassic ‐ Middle Cretaceous graphitic marbles, schists and quartzites (metamorphosed, organic limestones and shales and oil‐bearing sandstones) in the Coastal and Northern Ranges of Venezuela and Trinidad. They probably charged giant fault and stratigraphic traps analogous to today's Oficina‐Temblador and Heavy Oil Belt accumulations. From Late Eocene to Recent times, transpressive interaction between northern South America and neighbouring parts of the Caribbean and the Pacific inverted Mesozoic extensional systems below the remaining passive margin. The area became subdivided into a series of intermontane, foreland and pull‐apart basins bounded by transpressional uplifts, the latter sufering considerable shortening and strike‐slip displacement. Sedimentation progressed from deep marine to deltaic and molassic facies, providing reservoir sands and local source rocks. Inverted faults and foreland flexuring and interplay between structuration and sedimentation produced abundant structural and stratigraphic traps. Hydrocarbons from earlier accumulations suffered further maturation in place, remigrated to younger traps or escaped to the surface. Further hydrocarbon generation, involving Upper Cretaceous source rocks, occurred in local foredeep kitchens. Minor contributions also came from Tertiary source rocks.     

AN OVERVIEW OF THE PETROLEUM SYSTEMS IN THE IONIAN ZONE,ONSHORE NW GREECE AND ALBANIA

The Ionian and Gavrovo Zones in the external Hellenide fold‐and‐thrust belt of western Greece are a southern extension of the proven Albanian oil and gas province. Two petroleum systems have been identified here: a Mesozoic mainly oil‐prone system, and a Cenozoic system with gas potential. Potential Mesozoic source rocks include organic‐rich shales within Triassic evaporites and dissolution‐collapse breccias; marls at the base of the Early Jurassic (lower Toarcian) Ammonitico Rosso; the Lower and Upper Posidonia beds (Toarcian–Aalenian and Callovian–Tithonian respectively); and the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian–Turonian) Vigla Shales, part of the Vigla Limestone Formation. These potential source rocks contain Types I‐II kerogen and are mature for oil generation if sufficiently deeply buried. The Vigla Shales have TOC up to 2.5% and good to excellent hydrocarbon generation potential with kerogen Type II. Potential Cenozoic gas‐prone source rocks with Type III kerogen comprise organic‐rich intervals in Eocene–Oligocene and Aquitanian–Burdigalian submarine fan deposits, which may generate biogenic gas. The complex regional deformation history of the external Hellenide foldbelt, with periods of both crustal extension and shortening, has resulted in the development of structural traps. Mesozoic extensional structures have been overprinted by later Hellenide thrusts, and favourable trap locations may occur along thrust back‐limbs and in the crests of anticlines. Trapping geometries may also be provided by lateral discontinuities in the basal detachment in the thin‐skinned fold‐and‐thrust belt, or associated with strike‐slip fault zones. Regional‐scale seals are provided by Triassic evaporites, and Eocene‐Oligocene and Neogene shales. Onshore oil‐ and gasfields in Albania are located in the Peri‐Adriatic Depression and Ionian Zone. Numerous oil seeps have been recorded in the Kruja Zone but no commercial hydrocarbon accumulations. Source rocks in the Ionian Zone comprise Upper Triassic – Lower Jurassic carbonates and shales of Middle Jurassic, Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous ages. Reservoir rocks in both oil‐ and gas‐fields in general consist of silicilastics in the Peri‐Adriatic Depression succession and the underlying Cretaceous–Eocene carbonates with minimal primary porosity improved by fracturing in the Albanian Ionian Zone. Oil accumulations in thrust‐related structures are sealed by the overlying Oligocene flysch whereas seals for gas accumulations are provided by Upper Miocene–Pliocene shales. Thin‐kinned thrusting along flysch décollements, resulting in stacked carbonate sequences, has clearly been demonstrated on seismic profiles and in well data, possibly enhanced by evaporitic horizons. Offshore Albania in the South Adriatic basin, exploration targets in the SW include possible compressional structures and topographic highs proximal to the relatively unstructured boundary of the Apulian platform. Further to the north, there is potential for oil accumulations both in the overpressured siliciclastic section and in the underlying deeply buried platform carbonates. Biogenic gas potential is related to structures in the overpressured Neogene (Miocene–Pliocene) succession.     

闽西溪口组沉积环境及构造意义

对闽西溪口组(T₁x)的沉积特征、岩石化学成分、构造形变的研究表明,它是在海水较深的动荡环境下快速沉积而成的一套位于与活动陆缘相连的前陆盆地底部的复理石沉积,它和上覆沉积物一起构成了一套完整的前陆盆地沉积序列,其形成与东南沿海中生代早期的一次较为温和的造山作用有关。      

陆-陆碰撞对南亚地区油气的控制作用

南亚地区主体为印度板块,裂谷期(4 570～166 Ma)时为东冈瓦纳大陆的一部分,自晚侏罗世(166 Ma)经过从南向北的长距离漂移,从始新世(49 Ma)开始,该板块向欧亚板块俯冲,早-中中新世(16 Ma)至今喜马拉雅山脉和印度-缅甸山脉快速隆升,形成了5个构造单元。前晚白垩世板块北部被动边缘型沉积被破坏,而东、西两侧和南缘沉积遭受抬升剥蚀程度较小,油气保存条件较好,板块内部在裂谷期仅发生微弱的沉降,晚碰撞期烃源岩未成熟。油气主要富集在沿着印度板块边缘分布的被动大陆边缘、前陆盆地、弧前-弧后盆地和夭折裂谷系中,以中、新生代沉积为主,典型的油气运聚模式依次为复合砂体运聚模式、构造褶皱-冲断运聚模式、断-坳垂向运聚模式和断裂-岩性运聚模式。     

塔里木盆地西南部白垩系-古近系沉积特征与储盖组合

通过对塔里木盆地西南部中新生代地层沉积研究表明,早白垩世继承了侏罗纪的沉积面貌,以陆相沉积占主导,从晚白垩世初到渐新世,受特提斯海洋壳扩张影响,海水多次自西向东侵漫到喀什、叶城及和田等地区,形成了西塔里木海湾。受同期全球海平面整体上升时期大规模海侵影响,塔西南上白垩统-始新统乌拉根组主要发育海相沉积,之后受同期全球海平面整体下降时期海退影响,始新统-渐新统巴什布拉克组为陆相沉积。塔西南晚白垩世-古近纪由于海平面的频繁变化,发育了滨海、浅海-潟湖相的碳酸盐岩、膏盐岩及泥岩沉积体系,形成了上白垩统依格孜牙组碳酸盐岩与上覆古近系阿尔塔什膏盐岩及古近系卡拉塔尔组碳酸盐岩与上覆乌拉根组深色泥岩2套重要的储盖组合,是塔西南地区油气勘探值得重视的重要领域。      

安第斯山前典型前陆盆地油气成藏特征及主控因素

南美安第斯造山带东侧与圭亚那地盾之间形成了一系列沉积盆地,其构造演化可分为古生代克拉通边缘、中生代弧后裂谷或大陆边缘裂谷、新生代弧后前陆等3 个阶段。白垩系海相泥页岩和碳酸盐岩为主要烃源岩;发育白垩系、古近系和新近系3 大套以砂岩为主的储集层,白垩系裂谷期形成的暗色泥岩和古近系泥岩可作为良好的盖层,纵向上构成了被动陆缘和前陆层序两套储盖组合。山前带构造圈闭发育,油气藏规模大,主要为正常油;斜坡带发育构造、地层等多种圈闭,油藏规模较小,主要为重质油。主造山期形成的构造最有利于捕获油气;优质储集层和断裂构成了油气运移的输导网络;构造破坏和水洗作用使斜坡带多为稠油油藏。     

2D BASIN MODELLING IN THE EASTERN VARISCAN FOLD BELT (CZECH REPUBLIC): INFLUENCE OF THRUSTING ON PATTERNS OF THERMAL MATURATION

This study evaluates the geothermal history of Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks from the easternmost part of the Variscan external zone in the NE Czech Republic. The objective was to investigate the geothermal history of pre‐Variscan Palaeozoic carbonates in the study area, and to assess its relationship with that of the overlying Variscan flysch. In the study area, the Palaeozoic succession occurs at the surface or is overlain by Miocene sediments of the Carpathian Foredeep. Palaeozoic nappes and the main Variscan overthrust have been documented in the subsurface at the deep Pot?tát‐1borehole. Vitrinite reflectance measurements on 38 samples from the Pot?tát‐1 well and 19 samples from nearby surface outcrops and shallow boreholes were available. A 2D thermal model was created using PetroMod and the thermal maturity evolution was modelled by EASY%Ro. The thermal model was constructed based on interpretations of two NW‐SE seismic profiles (lines 5/83 and 5/84) oriented perpendicular to the main Variscan thrusts. The results were calibrated using measured vitrinite reflectance and were adjusted with 1D models from three shallow boreholes. At the Pot?tát‐1 borehole, modelled maximum palaeo‐temperatures of the Variscan flysch (Moravice Formation) ranged from 310°C at a depth of 7.3 km (the top of the preserved succession) to 395°C at the base of the succession, resulting in thermal maturities of >4%R_r. Peak maturation occurred prior to the end of Variscan thrusting. Modelling suggests that the basal heat flow for these thrust units reached a maximum value of 63 mW/m² at 325 Ma. In addition, the modelling suggests that the maturity of the Palaeozoic carbonates was controlled by the thickness of the overlying Variscan flysch nappes. Maximum palaeo‐temperatures for the Palaeozoic carbonates ranged from 265°C at the top of the interval (at a depth of 7.1 km) to 290°C at the base, resulting in a maturity of 3.8 to >4%R_r which is within the dry gas window. The study suggests that basal heat flows in the original (pre‐thrust) Early Carboniferous sedimentary basin were slightly higher than those in the post‐thrust location for the Variscan flysch nappes. This should be taken into account when evaluating the petroleum system in the South Moravian oil province (SW Czech Republic) where a complete sedimentary sequence has not been preserved.     

STRATIGRAPHY AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF THE CROATIAN PART OF THE ADRIATIC BASIN

Coastal parts of Croatia are dominated by the SW‐verging Dinaric foldbelt, to the west and SW of which is the Adriatic Basin (the stable foreland). In both areas, the stratigraphic column is dominated by a thick carbonate succession ranging from Carboniferous to Miocene. Four megasequences have been identified: (i) a pre‐platform succession ranging in age from Late Carboniferous (Middle Pennsylvanian: Moscovian) to Early Jurassic (Early Toarcian; Bru?ane and Ba?ke Ostarije Formations); (ii) an Early Jurassic to Late Cretaceous platform megasequence (Mali Alan Formation); (iii) a Paleogene to Neogene post‐platform megasequence (Ra?a Formation); and (iv) a Neogene to Quaternary (Pliocene to Holocene) megasequence (Istra and Ivana Formations). A number of organic‐rich intervals with source rock potential have been identified on‐ and offshore Croatia: Middle and Upper Carboniferous, Upper Permian, Lower and Middle Triassic, Lower and Upper Jurassic, Lower and Upper Cretaceous, Eocene, and Pliocene – Pleistocene. Traps and potential plays have been identified from seismic data in the Dinaric belt and adjacent foreland. Evaporites of Permian, Triassic and Neogene (Messinian) ages form potential regional seals, and carbonates with secondary porosity form potential reservoirs. Oil and gas shows in wells in the Croatian part of the Adriatic Basin have been recorded but no oil accumulations of commercial value have yet been discovered. In the northern Adriatic offshore Croatia, Pliocene hemi‐pelagic marlstones and shales include source rocks which produce commercial volumes of biogenic gas. The gas is reservoired in unconsolidated sands of the Pleistocene Ivana Formation.     

塔里木西南拗陷新生代构造演化与油气的关系

塔里木盆地西南拗陷是长期发展演化的复合前陆拗陷。它在新生代经历了早第三纪构造宁静期、中新世构造主要发展期、上新世构造宁静期和第四纪构造定型期。构造变形以印度板块与欧亚大陆板块的碰撞及幕式推挤为背景,以发育冲断-褶皱和快速沉降为特征。自后陆向前陆,构造变形由强到弱。不同构造单元构造的变形也有其特点。盆地沉降是构造负载与沉积负载共同作用的结果。喜山构造运动不仅加速了烃源岩热演化,而且还产生了大量与断层相关的褶皱,为油气运聚提供了良好的条件。      

THE SUDANESE RED SEA: 2. NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY

From the limited analytical data which is available from the study area, it appears that the Mukawar and Hamait Formations, sandy facies of Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic age, have little or no hydrocarbon source potential. However, of the twelve Sudanese Red Sea wells, only one penetrated the Mukawar Formation. and the Hamamit is only known in four wells. On the other hand, the lower to middle Miocene Rudeis. Kareem and Belayim Formations were penetrated in several wells. and may have actually generated black oil in attaining their current levels of thermal maturity. The middle to upper? Miocene Dungunab Formation, which is equivalent to thesouth Gharib Formation of the Gulf of Suez. contains thin. regionallyextensive, intra-evaporite shales. These are early-mature in coastal areas but, if developed in the deeper offshore. are likely to be post-mature and are likely to have generated hydrocarbons. The zeit Formation is of variable thickness. the maxima coniciding with areas of deltaic influence. Although information is limited, it appears that occasional thin shales units may have significam source potential. The areas of more concentrated deltaic sedimentation with in the Zeit Formation are more likely to provide gas-prone source rocks. The Plio-pleistocene Abu Shagara Group has no oil source-potential in the nearshore areas. Potential may improve further offshore. where it is possible that these marine sediments may be richer in organic matter and have been subject to higher heat flow. Hydrocarbon generation in the Sudanese Red Sea had been influenced by many factors in addition to rift-controlled subsidence. These include the high thermal conductivity of evaporites, tectonic overpressuring and, in deeper waters, significantly higher levels of heat flow. Lower to middle Miocene source rocks are likely to have generated hydrocarbons at the end of Miocene times, whereas younger source rocks could be generating hydrcarbons at the present. The source of gas in the Suakin-1 gas-condenstae and Bashayer-1 dry gas discoveries is probably in the lower part of the Zeit Formation, an organically-rich deltaic facies. The condensate at Suakin-1 is likely to have been sourced from the inter-evaporitic shales of the underlying Dungunab Formation. Black-oil shows have been recorded at several Sudanese Red Sea wells and a significant gas-condensate discovery was made at Barrqan-1 in the northern part of he Saqdi sector. It has been suggested that reserves of condensate may be as high as half a billion barrels. Oil seeps on the Dahlac and Farasan Islands in the Ethiopin and Saudi sectors provide further grounds for an optimistic view that generation of commercial volumes of oil in the Sudanese Red Sea cannot be ruled our     

GEOLOGY OF THE MUSANDAM PENNINSULA (SULTANATE OF OMAN) AND ITS SURROUNDINGS

The Musandam peninsula (Sultanate of Oman) is a vast outcrop of carbonate rocks of Permian to Middle Cretaceous age. The facies of these formations relates them without doubt to the contemporaneous formations of the Arabian platform and there is a good analogy with the formations encountered in the wells drilled in the Persian Gulf west of the Musandam outcrops. After the deposition of these platform formations, several tectonic events deepb affected this area, and led to the present configuration: at the end qf the Middle Cretaceous, a wide area emerged on the E edge of the Arabian platform. whereas on the W side of the Peninsula important halokinetic movements of the structures of thePersian Gulf persisted. Following that tectonic event, the sedimentary domain of the platform withdrew towards the Arabian shield during the Upper Cretaceous, whereas the orogenic activity spread out into the oceanic domain. The Musandam peninsula was located between those two domnins, in a sedimentary basin which successively received first the turbidites of'the Muti Formation (Coniacian - Santonian), mainly produced by the erosion of the Middle Cretaceous emerged area, and then the Hawasina nappes, mainly formed by abyssal sediments of earlier Mesozoic age. Itis not firmly established whether the Semail nappe of the ophiolitic complex was emplaced over the Musandam as it was over the greater part of the Oman mountains. During and after the setting of the nappes, E-W compression caused the series of overthrusts, creating in the Musandam area a ridge edged on the W by a subsidmr foredeep which received materials from the ridge, and on the E by an oceanic zone in which the sedimentation was far more reduced. The same pattern continued until the end of the Lower Miocene, when a very important compressive movement from E to W gave their present shape to most structures. During the Upper Miocene, vertical movements of compensation took place and continued to thepresent time over Musandam, while on the E flankof the Peninsula, in the subsiding Gu(fof Oman, sedimentation became very important.     

PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF THE NOGAL BASIN AND SURROUNDING AREA,NORTHERN SOMALIA,PART 2: HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL

Seismic reflection profiles and well data show that the Nogal Basin, northern Somalia, has a structure and stratigraphy suitable for the generation and trapping of hydrocarbons. However, the data suggest that the Upper Jurassic Bihendula Group, which is the main source rock elsewhere in northern Somalia, is largely absent from the basin or is present only in the western part. The high geothermal gradient (～35–49 °C/km) and rapid increase of vitrinite reflectance with depth in the Upper Cretaceous succession indicate that the Gumburo Formation shales may locally have reached oil window maturity close to plutonic bodies. The Gumburo and Jesomma Formations include high quality reservoir sandstones and are sealed by transgressive mudstones and carbonates. ID petroleum systems modelling was performed at wells Nogal‐1 and Kalis‐1, with 2D modelling along seismic lines CS‐155 and CS‐229 which pass through the wells. Two source rock models (Bihendula and lower Gumburo) were considered at the Nogal‐1 well because the well did not penetrate the sequences below the Gumburo Formation. The two models generated significant hydrocarbon accumulations in tilted fault blocks within the Adigrat and Gumburo Formations. However, the model along the Kalis‐1 well generated only negligible volumes of hydrocarbons, implying that the hydrocarbon potential is higher in the western part of the Nogal Basin than in the east. Potential traps in the basin are rotated fault blocks and roll‐over anticlines which were mainly developed during Oligocene–Miocene rifting. The main exploration risks in the basin are the lack of the Upper Jurassic source and reservoirs rocks, and the uncertain maturity of the Upper Cretaceous Gumburo and Jesomma shales. In addition, Oligocene‐Miocene rift‐related deformation has resulted in trap breaching and the reactivation of Late Cretaceous faults.     

SOURCE‐ROCK MATURITY,HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL AND OIL – SOURCE‐ROCK CORRELATION IN WELL SHORISH‐1, ERBIL PROVINCE,KURDISTAN REGION,IRAQ

The Shorish‐1 exploration well is located in Erbil Province in the Kurdistan region of Iraq, on the outskirts of Erbil City near the dividing line between the Low Folded and High Folded Zones of the Zagros foldbelt. The well penetrated rocks which are between Miocene and Late Triassic in age. The depositional environment, source potential and maturity of organic‐rich intervals within the well succession were investigated using 38 cuttings samples. All samples were analysed for bulk geochemical parameters (i.e. total organic carbon, total carbon, sulphur, Rock‐Eval). A subset of 13 samples was selected for biomarker analysis, pyrolysis – gas chromatography and isotope investigations. In addition non‐commercial oil and oil impregnations were investigated for oil‐source correlations. Source rocks occur in the Jurassic Sargelu and Naokelekan Formations and the lowermost Cretaceous Chia Gara Formation. Analytical results suggest that these source rocks were deposited in a carbonate‐rich, anoxic environment in an intrashelf basin setting with free H₂S in the water column. Oxygen‐depleted conditions were favoured by salinity stratification. The average preserved TOC contents of the 100 m thick Sargelu Formation and the 25 m thick Naokelekan Formation are 2.2% and 4.6%, respectively. The TOC content of the Chia Gara Formation decreases upwards and averages 3.2% within its lower 40 m. Very high sulphur contents suggest the presence of kerogen Type II‐S, and that all the formations have generated sulphur‐rich hydrocarbons at relatively low maturities. In contrast to the oil impregnations within Jurassic strata, the oil and the oil impregnations within Cretaceous rocks are heavily biodegraded. Oil biomarker and isotope data indicate generation from the above‐mentioned Jurassic and Cretaceous source rock formations. As a result, generation from Triassic and Paleogene rocks can be excluded or is of negligible significance. Numerical models show that hydrocarbon generation rates from the Sargelu, Naokelekan and Chia Gara Formations peaked firstly at about 55 Ma (Paleocene/Eocene) and then again at 5 Ma before present (late Miocene/Pliocene). The first peak resulted from increased Paleocene subsidence, and the second peak was related to deep late Miocene/Pliocene burial. Hydrocarbon generation ceased during Recent uplift, during which ～2000 m of the Late Neogene succession was eroded.     

中国西部与中亚前陆盆地油气地质特征类比分析

中亚及中国西部盆地自中生代以来，一直处于相同的大地构造位置—特提斯构造域的北缘。由于受到特提斯洋形成与演化的影响，两地区在中、新生代经历了相似的构造演化过程，即都经历了中生代-古近纪断陷-坳陷沉积阶段和新近纪以来的前陆盆地演化阶段，在中—新生代沉积特征等方面表现出许多共同特征，油气地质条件方面具有一定的相似性。然而，各盆地不同的基底特征及其具体的大地构造位置又使其油气地质特征等方面存在一定的差异性。油气勘探的实践表明，中亚盆地群蕴藏着丰富的油气资源，是世界上重要的油气富集区之一。因此，进行中国西部与中亚前陆盆地油气地质特征的类比研究，认真分析两地区油气成藏条件的差异，有助于正确认识中国西部盆地的油气地质特征和分布规律，从而有效地指导西部油气勘探。     

中国中西部前陆冲断褶皱带油气地质条件及勘探建议

中国中西部前陆冲断褶皱带地处欧亚大陆腹地,随欧亚大陆的增生而经历了元古代以来的多次构造旋回及多幕次的构造运动,其中喜马拉雅期的陆内造山作用使天山两侧、昆仑山北侧等中西部前陆冲断褶皱带最终定型。独特的构造背景和演化历史决定了中国中西部前陆冲断褶皱带主要发育以三叠系、侏罗系煤系和泥质岩为主的陆相烃源岩;长期的生排烃历史和晚期定型的构造圈闭决定了其多期成藏、晚期为主的成藏特征;而后期保存条件好、优质盖层发育的区带为油气成藏的有利地区。中国中西部前陆冲断褶皱带的特殊性决定了其在勘探上既要借鉴国外相似领域的勘探经验,更应加强中国前陆冲断褶皱带油气成藏条件、成藏特征的理论探索和相应的配套技术攻关。     

秘鲁Maranon盆地油气地质特征及勘探潜力分析

秘鲁Maranon盆地是安第斯山山前的前陆盆地之一。结合该盆地的勘探历史和勘探现状，对相关的钻井、物探以及地球化学等资料进行石油地质综合分析，评价了该盆地的石油地质条件及其勘探潜力。Maranon盆地内有三叠-侏罗系的Pucara组和白垩系的Chonta组两套主要烃源岩，分别于晚侏罗世和始新世开始成熟生烃。Pucara组生成的原油运移至该组地层的剥蚀面，充注至白垩系，但遭到后期造山运动的破坏，通过再次运移聚集成藏；Chonta组生成的原油向盆地东北部运移聚集成藏。盆地内的圈闭类型有背斜、断鼻、断块和地层圈闭等，可能发育多套储盖组合。Maranon盆地西部逆冲-前渊带和无古生界构造圈闭背景的白垩系圈闭、Pucara组碳酸盐岩圈闭以及白垩系Chonta组以下地层潜在的含油气圈闭是该盆地3个重要的潜力勘探领域。图4表1参24     

3D BASIN MODELLING IN THE CENTRAL PERSIAN GULF,OFFSHORE IRAN

In the Central Persian Gulf, super‐giant natural gas accumulations in Permo‐Triassic reservoirs are assumed to be derived from “hot shale” source rocks in the lower Llandoverian (base‐Silurian) Sarchahan Formation, whereas oil in Mesozoic reservoirs is derived from Mesozoic source rocks. A 3D basin model has been established for a study area located in the Iranian part of the Central Persian Gulf in order to help understand the petroleum systems there. Sensitivity analyses considered different heat flow scenarios, and differences in the timing of Cenozoic uplift and erosion. For the Palaeozoic petroleum system, different thicknesses and distributions of the Silurian source rocks were considered. From current temperature profiles measured in five wells, present‐day heat flow was found to be in the order of 65 mW/m², while palaeo heat flow was probably between 60 and 68 mW/m² during Cenozoic maximum burial. For Llandoverian source rocks, oil and gas generation commenced during Jurassic and Late Cretaceous time respectively, and gas generation continued until the Neogene. Sensitivity analyses show that different assumptions on the timing of Cenozoic erosion do not have significant effects on the calculated timing of hydrocarbon generation or on the volume of generated hydrocarbons. As expected however, different heat flow scenarios (e.g. time‐constant heat flow of 65 mW/m² in the entire study area) had a significant influence. With an assumed 50 m thick Sarchahan “hot shale” succession developed uniformly in the study area (8 % TOC; 470 mg HC / g TOC HI), the model calculated gas accumulations which are of the same order of magnitude as those which have been discovered in this region (e.g. South Pars, Golshan and Balal fields). By contrast, scenarios with thinner “hot shales” and models without the Sarchahan Formation along the Qatar‐South Fars Arch do not predict the known accumulations. These scenarios suggest that prolific Silurian source rocks must be present on both sides of the South Pars / North Dome field, or that lateral gas migration from the south may have supplied the Permo‐Triassic reservoirs. This study shows that the Jurassic (mainly Hanifa / Tuwaiq Mountain Formation) and Cretaceous (Shilaif Formation) source units are not sufficiently mature in the study area to have generated significant volumes of oil. This result supports previous suggestions which envisaged lateral migration from the south of the oil present in Mesozoic reservoirs in the study area.