Formation of biogenic amines in herring and mackerel

The formation of biogenic amines (histamine, cadaverine, putrescine and spermidine) was followed during vacuum packed storage at 2 °C or 10 °C in the scombroid fish mackerel and in the non-scombroid fish herring. Also the changes in the content of free amino acids and in the organoleptic and microbiological qualities were followed.At 10 °C the amine contents were 2–20 times higher at the time of rejection as compared with samples stored at 2 °C. In herring and mackerel similar amounts of histamine were accumulated, whilst cadaverine was formed at much higher levels in mackerel compared with herring. The high contents of cadaverine in mackerel can possibly explain why mackerel and not herring are often implicated in incidents of scombortoxic poisoning.

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Bildung von biogenen Aminen im Hering

Zusammenfassung Die Bildung von biogenen Aminen (Histamin, Cadaverin, Putrescin und Spermidin) wurde während der Lagerung bei 2 °C oder 10 °C, vacuumverpackt, in Makrelen und Hering verfolgt, ebenso die Veränderungen im Gehalt an freien Aminosäuren und der sensorischen bzw. mikrobiologischen Eigenschaften.Bei 10 °C war der Amingehalt 2- bis 20mal höher als bei den Proben bei 2 °C. Beim Hering und der Makrele haben sich die Histaminmengen gleichermaßen angehäuft, wahrend sich Cadaverin in der Makrele viel starker gebildet hatte als im Hering. Der hohe Gehalt an Cadaverin in der Makrele kann möglicherwerise erklären, warum Makrelen und nicht die Heringe an Vergiftungen beitragen.

     

Amino acid composition of whole mackerel (Scomber scombrus) stored anaerobically at 20°C and at 2°C

Total amino acid composition of whole mackerel ( Scomber scombrus ) and of milt and roe from mackerel stored at different conditions were studied. During storage at low temperature, no obvious changes were found. When stored at high temperature (20°C), the contents of several of the amino acids decreased, and phenylethylamine, tyramine, putrescine, histamine and cadaverine were formed the formation of cadaverine was higher than the loss of lysine.     

CHANGES IN BIOGENIC AMINES OF MAJOR PORTUGUESE BLUEFISH SPECIES DURING STORAGE AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

Changes in histamine (Him), cadaverine (Cad), putrescine (Put), agmantine (Agm) and volatile basic nitrogen (VBN) contents were examined in sardine, Atlantic horse mackerel, chub mackerel and Atlantic mackerel, during ice storage and storage at room temperature. Him formation as well as other amines varied greatly with species of fish and storage conditions. The levels of Him, Cad, Put and VBN increased gradually in all the fish species as decomposition progressed, regardless of storage temperatures. In iced fish, amine production was considerably reduced and Him concentration was, in general, lower than 100 mg/Kg. During ice storage amines increased slowly until day 7, after which a significant rise was detected. In comparison with the other fish species higher levels of Him, Cad and Put were determined in Atlantic mackerel. At room temperature Him, Cad and Put were produced at the highest concentrations in chub mackerel, followed by sardine, Atlantic mackerel and Atlantic horse mackerel. Him concentration maximum exceeded allowable limits for human consumption in the first three species after 24h of storage at room temperature. No correlation was observed for Him or other amine levels and the degree of fish decomposition. Thus, the use of Him or other amines as a freshness index of the studied fish species was not considered appropriate.     

Biogenic amine survey and organoleptic changes in fresh, stored, and temperature-abused bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix).

Changes in histamine, putrescine, and cadaverine concentrations in bluefish filets (Pomatomus saltatrix) stored at 5, 10, and 15 degrees C were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography. An organoleptic assessment was conducted simultaneously with the biogenic amine analyses. The histamine levels found in fresh bluefish obtained from wholesale seafood distributors ranged between <1 ppm and 99 with an average of 39 ppm. Putrescine and cadaverine were not found in fresh bluefish. Fish fillets stored at each of the three temperatures developed histamine. The greatest accumulation of histamine was observed in fish stored at 15 degrees C, which developed histamine levels as high as 2,200 ppm. Putrescine levels increased at each temperature during storage. Cadaverine was present only in uninoculated bluefish stored at 15 degrees C. Histamine achieved higher levels in bluefish pieces inoculated with Morganella morganii, which demonstrates that bluefish support bacterial histamine formation. Histamine levels at each temperature exceeded the 50-ppm advisory level established by the Food and Drug Administration before 100% sensory rejection. Standard plate counts increased during storage of fish at all temperatures, but the correlation between histamine levels and standard plate count was not significant.     

Histamine and Tyramine in Preserved and Semi-preserved Fish Products

Data were obtained on histamine and tyramine contents in 48 samples of preserved and semi-preserved Spanish fish products. Ranges of concentration for both amines were wide: from 1.35 to 219.20 mg/ kg for histamine, and from 0.5 to 66.40 mg/kg for tyramine. Higher concentrations were found in semi-preserved anchovies than in the rest of the samples studied: canned tuna, herring, mackerel and sardines. In semi-preserved anchovies stored at room temperature (18-22°C), histamine production was observed after 6 months. The increase in histamine was not observed in the samples stored under refrigeration (4-6°C). Tyramine did not increase at either temperature of storage.     

Identification of bacteria crucial to histamine accumulation in pacific mackerel during storage

Bacterial growth and histamine formation in Pacific mackerel during storage at 0, 4, 15, and 25 degrees C were monitored. To identify bacterial species contributing to histamine formation, several groups of bacteria were isolated by using selective media under temperatures corresponding to the various storage conditions. Initially, low counts of bacteria were found in the gill, skin, and intestine of fresh fish, and only weak histamine formers were found in the gill. Histamine was found in the muscle when fish were stored above 4 degrees C, and aerobic plate counts reached 10(6) CFU/g. When fish became unsuitable for human consumption by abusive storage, toxicological levels of histamine were always found. The highest level of histamine formed was 283 mg/100 g in 2 days. The optimum temperature for supporting growth of prolific histamine formers was 25 degrees C. The most prolific and prevalent histamine former was Morganella morganii, followed by Proteus vulgaris, both of which were isolated on violet red bile glucose (VRBG) agar. At 15 degrees C, a significant level of histamine was still produced in fish muscle, although prolific histamine formers were less frequently detected than at 25 degrees C. The isolates on thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose (TCBS) agar were weak histamine formers and identified as Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio alginolyticus. At 4 degrees C, less than 57.4 mg/100 g of histamine was found in fish stored for 14 days. Most isolates were natural bacterial flora in the marine environment and identified as weak histamine formers. At 0 degrees C, neither histamine former nor histamine production was detected up to 14 days of storage.     

Changes in Biogenic Amines in Herring Stored under Modified Atmosphere and Vacuum Pack

ABSTRACT: Changes in 10 biogenic amines during the storage of herring in ice, in boxes without ice, in a modified atmosphere, and in vacuum packaging were investigated. The highest level of histamine was obtained from herring stored in boxes without ice, followed by herring stored in VP, ice, and MAP. Putrescine and cadaverine contents increased during the storage of herring held in ice, reaching levels of 4.0 mg and 23.7 mg/100g muscles at 16 d of storage, respectively. No significant differences were found in histamine concentrations within the treatments during the early stages of the storage period. However, there was a significant difference (P < 0.05) towards the end of the storage period in all treatments except between VP and ice.     

An Automated Fluorimetric Method for the Determination of Histamine in Canned Fish Products

An automated extraction and fluorimetric detection procedure for the determination of histamine in fish products is described. Proteins are removed pr or to the automated procedure. Histamine, added at different concentration levels to a homogenized fish sample, is recovered quatitatively. The results from a study of histamine in samples of commercially canned mackerel, tuna, herring and sardines showed that ～79% of the investigated samples had histamine levels lower than 1 mg% while ～8% had a histamine content higher than 10 mg%.     

Effects of Storage Time and Temperature on the Microflora and Amine-Development in Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus)

Microbial content was characterized and levels of three amines (histamine, cadaverine, and putrescine) were determined in Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) decomposed at PC, WC, and 30°C for varying lengths of time. Correlations were shown (1) between the levels of the histamine, cadaverine, and putrescine and the time and temperature of decomposition, (2) between the ratios of cadaverine/histamine and putrescine/histamine levels and the temperature of decomposition, and (3) between increasing total microbial counts and rising amine levels. A total of 14 bacterial species with histidine decarboxylase activity were isolated from decomposing fish, including three species (Acinetobacter lwoffi, Pseudomonas putrefaciens, and Aeromonas hydrophila) not previously reported to have the potential to produce histamine.     

Endotoxin and biogenic amine levels in Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus), sardine (Sardina pilchardus) and Mediterranean hake (Merluccius merluccius) stored at 22 °C

Whole Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus), sardine (Sardina pilchardus) and Mediterranean hake (Merluccius merluccius) from the Croatian Adriatic were stored at 22 °C and changes in histamine, putrescine, tyramine and cadaverine levels were monitored in relation to bacterial endotoxin. After 12 h, histamine levels in sardine were above the legal limit of 50 mg kg^?1, set by the US Food and Drug Administration, and an increase in putrescine content preceded the increase in histamine. After 24 h, histamine contents in mackerel and sardine reached 1090 ± 101 and 577 ± 275 mg kg^?1, respectively, which exceeded the toxic threshold of 500 mg kg^?1. At the same time, the putrescine content was also high in both fish (353–420 mg kg^?1). The time-course of endotoxin production was similar in all fish species stored at 22 °C. A high correlation was found between endotoxin and histamine, and between endotoxin and putrescine in mackerel and sardine. On the other hand, high endotoxin levels in hake, after 24 h, were associated with the low histamine and putrescine content (40–60 mg kg^?1).     

Biogenic amine formation and bacterial contribution in fish,squid and shellfish

Forty-one species of fish, squid and shellfish were analyzed for biogenic amine (BA) contents. Most of the fish samples showed lower BA contents, whereas some samples showed higher contents than the allowable levels. Shellfish and squid samples had negligible BA levels. Four fish species containing high BA levels were analyzed for changes in histamine contents during storage. In the most samples, the histamine contents remarkably increased up to 36.6–2123.9 mg/kg after 24 h of storage at 25 °C, while the contents began to gradually increase after 2–3 days of storage at 4–10 °C. The dominant microbial group was enterobacteria throughout the storage period. Meanwhile, out of total 119 strains isolated from different fish species showing high BA levels, 23 strains identified as Enterobacter aerogenes produced large amounts of histamine, putrescine and cadaverine, and 33 strains identified as two different Enterobacter spp. produced less histamine but large amounts of putrescine and cadaverine.     

Determination of the heating temperature of fishery products.

The German Fish Directive prescribes that products must be heated to the core temperature of +70 degrees C to kill existing larvae of nematodes. For subsequent determination of the heating temperature samples were extracted with water. The extracts were analysed for protein content, for protein patterns obtained by isoelectric focusing and by using the coagulation test. The suitability of these methods was investigated with heated extracts, heated minced fish flesh, and smoked herring and mackerel. Smoking was performed in the kiln of the institute at controlled temperatures. Analysis of commercial samples showed that the core temperature during smoking of herring and mackerel must have been clearly below 70 degrees C in several cases.     

Comparative rates of spoilage of fillets and whole fish during storage of haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) and herring (Clupea harengus) as determined by the formation of non-volatile and volatile amines

The concentrations of the non-volatile and volatile amines that formed in herring ( Clupea harengus ) and haddock ( Melanogrammus aeglefinus ) during storage as fillets and as whole fish in ice and at 5°C were determined. Comparison of the rates of formation of the major non-volatile amines (histamine, cadaverine and putrescine) and trimethylamine showed that haddock fillets deteriorated more rapidly than the whole gutted fish and that ungutted herring spoiled more rapidly than fillets. The value of amines as indices of spoilage in fish is discussed.     

Histamine and biogenic amine production by Morganella morganii isolated from temperature-abused albacore

Histamine-producing bacteria were isolated from albacore stored at 0, 25, 30, and 37 degrees C. They were screened using Niven's differential medium, and their histamine production was confirmed by high-pressure liquid chromatography analysis. The optimum temperature for growth of histamine-producing bacteria was 25 degrees C. The bacterium producing the highest level of histamine was isolated from fish abused at 25 degrees C. It was identified as Morganella morganii by morphological, cultural, biochemical, and antimicrobial characteristics and by the Vitek microbial identification system. The M. morganii isolate was inoculated into tuna fish infusion broth medium, and the effect of temperature was determined for microbial growth and formation of histamine and other biogenic amines. The isolate produced the highest level of histamine, 5,253 ppm, at 25 degrees C in the stationary phase. At 15 degrees C, histamine production was reduced to 2,769 ppm. Neither microbial growth nor histamine formation was detected at 4 degrees C. To determine whether the isolate can also produce other biogenic amines that can potentiate histamine toxicity, production of cadaverine, putrescine, serotonin, tryptamine, tyramine, phenylethylamine, spermidine, and spermine by the isolate was also monitored. Cadaverine, putrescine, and phenylethylamine were detected with microbial growth in the tuna fish infusion broth medium. The optimum temperature for cadaverine, putrescine, and phenylethylamine formation was found to be 25 degrees C, as it was for histamine.     

Effects of on-board and dockside handling on the formation of biogenic amines in mahimahi (Coryphaena hippurus), skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares)

Consumer illnesses by scombroid poisonings have been a continuing problem for many years. The intoxications follow the ingestion of fish such as tuna and mahimahi that have undergone bacterial decomposition, leading to the formation of biogenic amines. Research studies have concluded that histamine is one of the indicators of scombrotoxic fish and that other amines, such as cadaverine, could be involved in the illnesses. Guidance for the handling of fish on board fishing vessels to prevent the production of scombrotoxic fish has been limited by a lack of data addressing changes that occur in fish from the water to delivery at dockside. In this study, the changes in selected biogenic amines were determined in mahimahi and tuna, which were captured and held in seawater at 25 to 35 degrees C for incubation times up to 18 h. The fillets from the treated fish were sectioned by transverse cuts and analyzed for histamine, cadaverine, and putrescine. Results showed that at 26 degrees C, more than 12 h of incubation were required before a histamine concentration of 50 ppm was reached in mahimahi. At 35 degrees C, 50 ppm histamine formed within 9 h. Similar results were found for skipjack and yellowfin tuna. Histamine concentrations exceeded 500 ppm within an additional 3 h of incubation in mahimahi. At both temperatures, an increase in the concentration of cadaverine preceded an increase in histamine levels. Changes in putrescine concentrations in the fish were less pronounced. The study also demonstrated that histidine decarboxylase activity was retained in some frozen samples of fish and could result in further increases in histamine on thawing.     

Effect of low-dose irradiation and refrigeration on the microflora, sensory characteristics and biogenic amines of Atlantic horse mackerel (trachurus trachurus)

Fresh Atlantic horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus) were gamma irradiated at 1 and 3 kGy, and stored in ice for 23 days. Quality changes during ice storage at 0±1 °C were followed by sensory analysis and the determination of total viable count, histamine, cadaverine, putrescine, tyramine, agmatine, spermidine, trimethylamine and volatile basic nitrogen contents. The control lot had a sensory shelf life of 8 days, whereas those of the irradiated lots were extended by 4 days. TVCs and levels of amines increased in all lots with storage time, their contents being significantly reduced by irradiation, even when the lower level (1 kGy) was used. Histamine in the irradiated lots was undetectable when the fish was spoiled at the end of 23 days, whereas in the control lot, the concentration did not exceeded the maximum allowed in fresh fish (100 mg/kg). Presumptive identification of microorganisms gave a majority aerobic or facultative Gram-negative anaerobic rods being Gram-positive bacteria circa 10–18% in irradiated samples. Chemical indices were shown to be unsuitable for the determination of the quality changes in irradiated fish.     

BIOGENIC AMINES FORMATION IN SARDINE MARINADE DURING REFRIGERATED STORAGE

Biogenic amines (tyramine, putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, spermidine, spermine) in sardine marinade were investigated. Sardine were beheaded, gutted, filleted, washed and marinated by immersing the fish into solutions containing 2 and 4% acetic acid and 10% NaCl for 24 h. Biogenic amine content, sensory scores and pH values of marinated sardine were recorded during the storage at 4C for up to 5 months. Biogenic amine content in marinated sardine was higher than in raw material. There were significant (P<0.05) differences in biogenic amine content between acetic acid concentrations of 2% and 4% just after marinating. Initial values of biogenic amines in marinade with 4% acetic acid were significantly (P<0.05) lower than those in marinade with 2% acetic acid. The contents of tyramine***, putrescine and histamine in sardine marinade decreased in the first 2–3 months of storage, followed by continuous increase up to 5 months of the storage. After decrease in the first month, cadaverine level did not significantly change. According to results, the marination process influences biogenic amine accumulation.     

Chemical analysis and sensory evaluation of mahi-mahi (Cryphaena hippurus) during chilled storage

Biogenic amines, total volatile base-nitrogen (TVB-N), and sensory evaluation are some of the indicators used for fish quality determination. Our objective was to evaluate the relationship among histamine, cadaverine, putrescine, TVB-N, and sensory evaluation as quality assessment tools. Two groups of six mahi-mahi fillets were refrigerated at 7 degrees C and sampled on days 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10. On day 3, histamine, cadaverine, and putrescine levels reached 5, 3, and 0.5 mg/100 g, respectively, whereas TVB-N reached 30 mg/100 g. Sensory scores were 6 to 6.5 (10 very fresh and 1 very spoiled) for odor, appearance, texture, and color. Correlations were 0.78 and 0.72 between histamine and cadaverine and histamine and putrescine, 0.74 and 0.80 between TVB-N and cadaverine and TVB-N and putrescine, and 0.75 and 0.78 between odor and putrescine and odor and cadaverine. AromaMaps showed distinct trends for deteriorating mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus) quality.     

Survey of histamine content in seafood on the market

Food poisoning involving histamine has occurred almost every year for 20 years in Tokyo, and is usually due to ingestion of fish with lean meat, such as sardine, mackerel, horse mackerel and so on. Therefore, we were investigated the levels of histamine and 4 non-volatile amines (tyramine, putrescine, cadaverine, spermidine) in 637 samples on the market. The water activity of samples in which histamine was detected at 5 mg/100 g and over was examined. Histamine, tyramine, putrescine, cadaverine and spermidine were detected in 66, 43, 26, 64 and 5 samples, and the detection ranges were 5-340, 5-51, 5-42, 5-180 and 5-8 mg/100 g, respectively. Most of the samples in which histamine was detected were semi-dried round and split sardine. Water activity of 24 samples of semi-dried round and split sardine in which histamine was detected was in the range of 0.68-0.96.     

QUALITY DECAY OF FRESH PROCESSED FISH STORED UNDER REFRIGERATED CONDITIONS

The ability of commercial fresh fish to be processed to produce fresh-fish based hamburger was assessed in this work. In particular, four commercially important fish species, i.e., hake ( Merluccius merluccius ), mackerel ( Scomber scombrus ), sea bass ( Dicentrarchus labrax ) and sea bream ( Sparus aurata ) were packed in an aluminium/plastic laminated film, stored at 4C, and studied for changes in trimethylamine (TMA) and biogenic amines such as histamine, cadaverine, putrescine and spermidine. In terms of TMA content, results suggest that sea bass and sea bream resulted into species suitable to be fresh processed having a TMA acceptability limit of 5.5 and 10 days, respectively, whereas in the same conditions, hake and mackerel resulted highly perishable products with a TMA acceptability limit of 2.2 and 1.7 days, respectively. Concerning food safety related to histamine content, for the entire period of observation all species showed an amount lower than the maximum content allowed (100 ppm).

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

This work is an interesting investigation on the possibility to process fresh fish. The results of the research can be advantageously used by fish industry. The fish-based hamburger represents a strategic solution to overcome the barrier to fish consumption that is subjected to many influences among which one is the consideration of fish as time-consuming meal.