The impact of food and beverage characteristics on expectations of satiation,satiety and thirst

The expected impact of a food or drink on appetite can influence decisions around eating and the actual experience of satiation and satiety post-consumption. This study explored the relationship between a product’s anticipated sensory characteristics and its expected impact on feelings of hunger, fullness and thirst. Female participants (n = 118) evaluated 40 widely available food and beverage products (varying in physical characteristics, packaging, serving size and total energy content) for anticipated sensory characteristics, pleasantness and familiarity, alongside expected impact on immediate fullness, hunger after one hour and thirst both immediately and after one hour. Correlations revealed that the most caloric products and those anticipated to be creamier were expected to be more filling and hunger suppressing than the products with lower energy content and expected to be less creamy. Total energy was the best predictor of expected satiation and satiety. We observed that beverage products were expected to be similarly satiating as food products (including liquid, solid and semi-solids) with a similar total energy content and expected creaminess. On the other hand, products expected to be less salty and thick were expected to be most thirst-quenching, and these tended to be beverage products, regardless of their total energy content. These results are in line with emerging evidence suggesting that certain sensory cues associated with nutrients can be used to estimate the satiating power of other foods, including beverages. Beverages are expected to be uniquely thirst-quenching, but are not always expected to have a low satiety-value.     

A low-calorie beverage supplemented with low-viscosity pectin reduces energy intake at a subsequent meal

The addition of fiber to foods and beverages has been linked with greater satiety and reduced energy intakes at the next meal. However, measures of satiety can be influenced by the time interval between beverage consumption and the next meal. The objective of this study was to determine how the time interval between consumption and a subsequent test meal impacts the satiating power of a low-calorie beverage supplemented with low-viscosity pectin fiber. Forty-two participants (20 men, 22 women) each participated in 4 study sessions. Study preloads were 2 low-calorie beverages (355 mL, 8 kcal) containing either 0 g fiber (no fiber) or 8 g low-viscosity fiber (added fiber). These preloads were consumed either 90 min before lunch or 15 min before lunch. Every 15 min, participants rated hunger, desire to eat, fullness, and thirst using 100-mm visual analogue scales. A test lunch was served and plate waste was measured. Beverages with added fiber reduced energy intakes at lunch relative to those without fiber. A short delay (15 min) between beverage consumption and a subsequent meal was associated with higher satiety ratings and reduced energy intakes, regardless of fiber content. The addition of low-viscosity pectin to low-calorie beverages reduced energy intakes at the next meal, presenting a possible tool for intake regulation. A short time interval between consumption of a low-calorie beverage and a meal also increased satiety and decreased food intake, reflecting the short-lived effect of volume.     

Satiety and consumers' perceptions: What opinions do Argentinian and Brazilian people have about yogurt fortified with dairy and legume proteins?

This study (1) evaluated the perceptions of Argentinian and Brazilian consumers regarding yogurt fortified with dairy proteins, legume proteins, or a combination of both, and (2) determined the satiety expectations of these foods as well as the consumers' intentions to taste and purchase protein-fortified yogurt. A total of 298 Argentinian and 100 Brazilian participants completed an online survey for this study. The free word association technique was used to investigate their perceptions about “satiety” as a verbal stimulus and 6 concepts of yogurt as visual/verbal stimuli (yogurt, set yogurt, skim set yogurt, skim set yogurt with a high content of dairy proteins, skim set yogurt with a high content of legume proteins, and skim set yogurt with a mix of dairy and legume proteins). The expected satiation and intentions to taste or purchase were evaluated using categorical scales. Regardless of their cultural background, participants from both countries expressed similar associations with the stimuli presented. Yogurt and set yogurt were associated with consumption occasions, sensory characteristics, liking, and foods, whereas skim yogurt was associated with diet food. Products fortified with proteins were associated with healthy foods, regardless of the protein source, and they yielded the highest rates for expected satiation. Brazilian participants were more likely to taste the food with a combination of proteins; however, participants from both countries were indifferent to purchasing the product. Important characteristics in the design and marketing of these products were pleasant sensations, such as “fullness,” “satisfied,” and snacks to eat “on the go,” and the vegetarian consumers' segment. The combination with fruits or cereals, creaminess, and vanilla flavor should also be considered. The study findings could have implications for the dairy industry when designing yogurt fortified with proteins and communicating the nutritional and wholesome properties of these products.     

Sensory properties of thickened and protein-enriched plant-based frozen desserts

The number of consumers following plant-based diets has increased and in turn, the variety of plant-based foods available on the market has also increased. Many plant-based foods aim to mimic the functionality and sensory properties of conventional dairy products; however, they may not be suitable for specific populations. Dysphagia, for example, is a swallowing condition requiring texture-modified foods that meet specific criteria. While many conventional thickened products exist that are safe for individuals with dysphagia, the growing interest in plant-based eating alongside the increasing prevalence of dysphagia prompts a need for research on the use and safety of thickened plant-based alternatives. This study investigated the sensory properties of a thickened protein-enhanced ice cream (dairy and whey) compared to thickened protein-enhanced plant-based frozen desserts (cashew and pea, and coconut and pea). The formulations were evaluated using the International Dysphagia Diet Standardization (IDDSI) Spoon Tilt Test and a sensory trial (n = 104 participants, 47 flexitarians and 57 typical consumers) using static (hedonic scales and check-all-that-apply [CATA]), and dynamic (temporal check-all-that-apply (TCATA)) methods. The dairy and whey sample consistently passed the IDDSI test, while the plant-based samples did not. TCATA identified that the plant-based samples had an increased cohesiveness and adhesiveness, and decreased slipperiness when compared to the dairy and whey sample. The differences in textural properties may explain why the plant-based samples did not pass the IDDSI test. The study identified that although plant-based foods strive to mimic conventional dairy products, they have different textural and flavor properties.     

Effects of hot spices on energy intake,appetite and sensory specific desires in humans

This study investigated the effect of hot spices on energy intake and appetite. Forty participants received five meals of fixed portion sizes, served with or without five hot spices followed by a buffet. Spices were used in doses perceived as moderately hot, ensuring that the meals were palatable. Food intake (kJ), appetite and liking (before, during, after the meal and after the buffet), mood (before, after the meal and after the buffet) and desire to eat sweet, sour, fatty, salty, bitter and hot foods (after the meal and after the buffet) were measured on 9-point scales. Hot spices did not affect energy intake (p > 0.05). Desire for sweet foods was increased by chili (0.6 point, p < 0.05) whereas desire to eat salty foods was decreased by mustard (1 point, p < 0.01), suggesting that hot spices can induce changes in sensory specific desires. Liking of the meals tended to increase during the buffet when compared to the relatively constant liking of the fixed starter meals, suggesting that traditional sensory specific satiety does not play a large role in determining eating behaviour with complex meals.     

Outcomes of a short term dietary intervention involving vegan soul food restaurants on African American adults’ perceived barriers,benefits, and dietary acceptability of adopting a plant-based diet

Plant-based diets are associated with numerous health benefits, but there has been limited work that focuses on diverse populations. The purpose of this study was to determine if encouraging a sample of African American adults, located in the Southern United States, to dine out at local vegan soul food restaurants helped to decrease perceived barriers and increase perceived benefits and dietary acceptability of a plant-based diet more so than being asked to prepare all meals at home. Thirty African American participants (mean age = 42.8 ± 12.2 years and mean BMI = 36.9 ± 9.0 kg/m²) were asked to adhere to a vegan diet for 3 weeks and were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions: (1) a Standard group that was asked to prepare all meals at home, or (2) a Restaurant group that was asked to eat out a few times a week at local vegan soul food restaurants in addition to preparing meals at home. The results indicated that in just 3 weeks there were significant reductions in several perceived barriers and increases in some perceived benefits and aspects of dietary acceptability in both groups. Additionally, weight loss within each group was significant (Standard group: −1.6 [−4.4 to −0.9] kg, P < 0.001; Restaurant group: −1.9 [−3.1 to −0.1] kg, P < 0.01), but there were no significant between-group differences (P = 0.72). Future work should continue to focus on providing culturally-relevant vegan restaurant options, identify easy ways to shop for and prepare plant-based diets during an intervention, and examine potential health benefits that may result from eating more plant-based foods.     

In vitro and In vivo studies on intragastric soya protein–polysaccharide gels in a beverage matrix

Intragastric gelation is a mechanism whereby a consumed liquid food gels under the acidic gastric condition. It was hypothesised that intragastric gelation would result in satiety due to delayed gastric emptying. Three treatment beverages that is soya protein isolate (SPI) with λ‐carrageenan (SPI‐LC; high viscosity, gelling), guar gum (SPI‐GG; high viscosity) and no polysaccharide (SPI; low viscosity) were given to twenty participants in a randomised 3 × 3 double‐blind within‐subject crossover design trial and asked to rate their hunger and fullness scores (visual analogue scale; VAS) before and up to 60 min after consumption of the beverage. Results show that there were no significant effects on hunger, fullness and energy intake after consuming the SPI‐LC (gelling) beverage compared to the SPI‐GG beverage, but did evoke weak satiety signals up to 20 min after consumption when compared to the control (low‐viscosity) SPI beverage. Therefore, intragastric gelation does not result in satiety in this study.     

Drivers of plant-based convenience foods consumption: Results of a multicomponent extension of the theory of planned behaviour

Current lifestyles always pose increasing time pressure that can result in unhealthy diets. Our study addresses the role that high-quality plant-based convenience foods can play in promoting healthier consumptions. While convenience foods are in fact often associated with poor nutritional values, the spread of healthy convenience foods could respond to the needs of new lifestyles and promote better food choices. The study is based on a multicomponent model of the Theory of Planned Behaviour that has made it possible to verify how control factors such as cooking skills, product availability, budget, time pressure, and interest in healthy eating can affect the consumption of precooked plant-based foods. The results of Structural Equation Models applied to a sample representative of the Italian population (600 individuals) highlight the presence of a consistent group of consumers (almost 70%) that consider plant-based convenience foods as a useful means to improve their diet. For this cluster, the control factors that significantly influence behaviour are market availability, interest in healthy eating, and time pressure. The advancements in knowledge that this research produces are translated into guidelines for producers, retailers, and policy makers that, in synergy, might encourage consumers to replace unhealthy foods with healthy ones.     

The role of sour and bitter perception in liking,familiarity and choice for phenol-rich plant-based foods

Among factors influencing food preferences and choices, individual differences in taste perception play a key role in defining eating behaviour. In particular, sour and bitter responsiveness could be associated with the acceptance and the consumption of phenol-rich plant-based foods recommended for a healthy diet. The aim of this study was to investigate, in a large population sample, the associations among sour and bitter responsiveness and liking, familiarity and choice for plant-based foods characterized by these target tastes. Adults aged 18 to 60 years (n = 1198; 58% women) were tested for their sour and bitter responsiveness both in water solutions and in food models (pear juice-based beverages modified in citric acid content to induce different levels of sourness: 0.5, 2.0, 4.0 and 8.0 g/kg; chocolate pudding samples modified in sucrose content to induce different levels of bitterness: 38, 83, 119, 233 g/kg). Familiarity, stated liking and choice for fruit juices and vegetables varying for sour/bitter taste (high in bitter/sour taste: e.g. grapefruit juice and cauliflower; low in bitter/sour taste: e.g. zucchini and pineapple juice) were measured. Results showed a significant positive correlation between bitter and sour taste perception in water solutions and model foods, as well as a positive correlation between the perceived intensity of the two taste stimuli. Subjects characterized by high responsiveness to the two target stimuli were found to give lower liking scores to foods characterized by sour/bitter tastes and tended to choose less sour/bitter foods compared to less responsive subjects.Thus, food choice for phenol rich plant-based products could be associated with a reduced responsiveness to bitter and sour tastes and a consequent higher acceptance of food products characterized by these taste qualities.     

Differential impact of consuming foods perceived to be high or low in fat on subsequent food reward

BackgroundThe perception that a food is ‘healthy’ or ‘low fat’ has been proposed as an important issue influencing eating behaviour. This study had two aims: a) to test the perceived health value of two popular foods in Brazil and, b) to investigate the impact of consuming these foods on subsequent food reward. Individual differences in adiposity and eating behaviour traits were also explored.MethodsTwenty-four adults (36.9 ± 9.8 years) were included (10 male, 14 female), mean Body Mass Index 27.6 ± 4.1 kg/m2 and mean weight 77.4 ± 14.8 kg. They attended the laboratory on two different occasions, for Perceived high-Fat [PHF] and perceived Low-Fat [PLF] conditions. Food reward was tested by the LFPQ-BR in fasted and fed states for each condition. Two popular food in Brazil were chosen to be used as test meals and were prepared in order to be similar in terms of weight, calorie content and macronutrient composition; it was hypothesised that Coxinha [shredded chicken meat, covered in dough] (PHF condition) would be perceived as less healthy and higher fat content than a chicken sandwich (PLF condition). A paper-based visual analogue scale was used to confirm this hypothesis. Anthropometric measures (weight, height, neck and waist circumference) and eating behaviour traits scores (uncontrolled eating, cognitive restraint and emotional eating – TFEQ-R21) were undertaken.ResultsResults showed that the two nutritionally matched foods differed on several indicators of perceived healthiness including perceived fat content. Post consumption, there was an increased implicit wanting for high-fat sweet food after the PLF meal. Exploratory analyses showed that cognitive restraint was an independent predictor for the perception of the fat content of PHF and moderated the impact of PHF on implicit wanting.ConclusionThese findings have implications for food marketing and the role of restrained eating on food perception and food reward.     

糯性加工食品餐后血糖及饱腹感评价

为了研究糯性加工食品餐后生理反应,选择以粳糯米和籼糯米为原料制成的米饭、年糕、油饭、油糕为研究对象,测定各糯性加工食品餐后120 min的血糖和饱腹感反应,计算血糖生成指数（glycemic index,GI）与饱腹感指数（satiety index,SI）。结果表明：各样品的GI值为：粳糯米饭94.42、籼糯米饭84.47、粳糯年糕125.47、籼糯年糕110.87、粳糯油饭89.66、籼糯油饭80.13、粳糯油糕112.34、籼糯油糕99.10,即全部糯性加工食品均为高GI食物。对于同品种糯米,米粉加工食品年糕、油糕GI值分别高于对应整粒加工食品米饭、油饭;加入猪油制成的油饭、油糕的血糖反应较米饭、年糕略微降低;对于同种糯性加工食品,粳糯比籼糯具有更高的血糖反应;各糯性加工食品SI值为0.99～1.15,样品间无显著性差异,数值与参比粳米相近;与未添加猪油的样品相比,添加猪油并未增加餐后饱腹感,等能量比较时饱腹感反而更低。由此说明不同糯米品种、粒度以及脂肪的添加都会影响糯性加工食品的餐后血糖反应。但整体看来糯性加工食品血糖反应较高,不适合控制血糖者食用。     

Dynamic aspects of liking: post-prandial persistence of sensory specific satiety

The time dependence of the liking of foodstuffs was investigated in a study with 25 subjects, consisting of three parts: (1) on day one, a sensory specific satiety study, which was extended until 125 min after consumption; (2) on days two to seven, a repeated in home taste and evaluation study; (3) on day eight, a second sensory specific satiety study as in 1.In parts 1 and 3, subjects were asked to eat either cheese biscuits or pears in light syrup to satiety. The change in liking of both foodstuffs, after eating one of the two foodstuffs to satiety, was followed during 125 min. In part 2, the same subjects were asked to taste and evaluate each product at home, every day for six days.In the sensory specific satiety studies (parts 1 and 3) a significant decrease in liking was observed for the product eaten to satiety, as long as 125 min after consuming that product to satiety. For both products contrast effects were observed: the liking of the uneaten product increased after eating the other product to satiety, while the liking of the eaten product decreased. This contrast effect lasted longer after eating cheese biscuits to satiety, than after eating pears to satiety.In the in home taste and evaluation study, a significant and linear decrease in liking was observed for both products during six days. There was a significant effect (p < 0.05) of eating cheese biscuits to satiety in the sensory specific satiety study on day 1, on the liking ratings of the in home consumption study. No such effect was observed for the pears.The results indicate that sensory specific satiety is relatively strong for more than 2 h after consumption and can have effects on liking ratings for more than 24 h. These effects were different for the products tested. Based on these results, we suggest that combining eating a product to satiety and in home evaluation over several days, could possibly be useful as an accelerated method to predict changes in liking upon repeated consumption.     

Effects of Color on Aroma, Flavor and Texture Judgments of Foods

Twenty-nine subjects judged the aroma, flavor and texture of five pairs of foods that were normally colored and either uncolored or inappropriately colored. Subjects were tested during conditions of hunger and satiation and approximately half of the subjects were blindfolded during both test sessions. The data revealed that, in general, appropriately colored foods were perceived to have a stronger intensity and better quality aroma and flavor. The effects of color were significant only for aroma judgments although the same trend was evident for flavor judgments. The state of hunger significantly influenced flavor but not aroma judgments but the pattern of changes did not appear to be related to food color. Judgments of texture quality were not affected by the experimental manipulations.     

Successful development of satiety enhancing food products: towards a multidisciplinary agenda of research challenges

In the context of increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity in societies worldwide, enhancing the satiating capacity of foods may help people control their energy intake and weight. This requires an integrated approach between various food-related disciplines. By structuring this approach around the new product development process, this paper aims to present the contours of such an integrative approach by going through the current state of the art around satiety enhancing foods. It portrays actual food choice as the end result of a complex interaction between internal satiety signals, other food benefits, and environmental cues. Three interrelated routes to satiating enhancement are to change the food composition to develop stronger physiological satiation and satiety signals, anticipate and build on smart external stimuli at the moment of purchase and consumption, and improve palatability and acceptance of satiety enhanced foods. Key research challenges in achieving these routes in the field of nutrition, food technology, consumer, marketing, and communication are outlined.     

Compositional analysis and roasting behaviour of gevuina and macadamia nuts

This study compares the composition of macadamia and gevuina nuts following natural abscission and air-drying of intact nuts and compares chemical and sensory properties on roasting gevuina nuts using a reported macadamia roasting process. The markedly higher fat content of macadamia (75% vs. 43%) reflected a higher percentage of protein, moisture, ash and carbohydrate in gevuina nuts. Gevuina nuts also had lower energy and pH values than macadamia. Water activities were similar. Both oils were around 80% monounsaturated, but differed widely in positional isomerism. On roasting, macadamia nuts developed sweet, nutty, buttery notes along with brown colour development (measured using L *, a *, b * values) after 20 min at 135 °C while gevuina nut colour and aroma took at least 30 min, where the aroma was more hazelnut-like. Extractable volatiles were significantly higher for macadamias following roasting.     

The development of a perceived satiety index for military rations

Studies were conducted to index the perceived satiety value of a variety of military ration items, to assess the relationship of the food's nutrient composition, physical, and sensory properties to satiety, and to determine the ability of the sum of the satiety indices for individual meal components to predict total meal satiety.

Equicaloric 300 kcal portions of 17 common military ration items and two commercial food items were tested. Satiety measures were obtained before consumption, immediately after consumption and every 15 min thereafter for 1 h. Ratings of acceptability and sensory attributes (sweet, salty, chewy, moist, dense, fatty/oily/creamy) were also obtained. The area under the 75-min response curve (AUC) was used to quantify the overall satiety responses to each item. A satiety index (SI) was calculated by dividing the mean AUC for each food item by the mean AUC for a reference food. Significant differences were found in perceived satiety among the nineteen food items. The mean AUC was greatest for oatmeal, which was 4.78 times higher than the lowest AUC. A stepwise regression analysis was used to examine the relationship of individual food characteristics (macronutrient content, weight in grams, and volume), initial satiety level, sensory attributes, and liking to overall satiety. The obtained model revealed four variables that contributed significantly to perceived satiety: initial satiety, fat and protein content, and the perception of fatty/oily/creamy. Higher initial satiety (fullness) and higher fat content were associated with lower perceived satiety, while higher protein content and higher fatty/oily/creamy ratings were associated with greater satiety. A regression analysis to determine whether the sum of individual item satiety scores (AUCs), adjusted for serving size, could be used to predict the overall satiety of a meal resulted in a predictive equation with an R²_Adj of 0.54. The intercept of the equation was close to zero and the slope (0.69) was interpreted as representing a correction factor for the diminishing growth of perceived satiety as a function of increasing kilocalories.

Overall, the data show that it is possible to index the perceived satiety value of individual ration components and meals, and that by developing a better understanding of the influence of the nutrient composition, physical, and sensory properties of a food on perceived satiety, it may be possible to develop or select ration components that produce lower levels of perceived satiety and which, in turn, may lead to increased consumption under field conditions.