Carotenoid content,its stability during drying and the antioxidant activity of commercial coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) varieties

Although populations of several tropical countries are under severe vitamin-A deficiency, traditional sources of pro-vitamin-A carotenoids have not been exploited due to the lack of relevant research data. In this study, ten commercial varieties of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), grown at identical conditions, were evaluated for carotenoids, their bio-efficacy and stability during drying, with the main emphasis on β-carotene (vitamin-A precursor) analysis by HPLC-MS. In all varieties, β-carotene content was higher in foliage at mature stage, than in seedlings and seeds. Variety GS4 Multicut produced highest biomass (6.18 ± 0.73 g/plant), total carotenoids (217.50 ± 5.6 mg/100 g DW) and β-carotene (73.64 ± 0.3 mg/100 g DW) at pre-flowering stage. Carotenoids extract showed a high antioxidant activity with IC₅₀ value of 14.29 ± 1.68 μg/ml, scavenging hydroxyl radicals and rendering higher protection to DNA than by standard gallic acid (IC₅₀ = 357.21 ± 4.29). Microwave drying of foliage was rapid with better retention of pigments, high intactness of trans-β-carotene and higher extractability of pigments when compared with oven drying.     

Carotenoid composition of two Brazilian genotypes of acerola (Malpighia punicifolia L.) from two harvests

Acerola fruit is native to Central America and adapted very well to Brazil, which in turn became the major worldwide acerola producer, consumer and exporter. Two acerola genotypes were harvested from a Brazilian plantation during the 2003 and 2004 summer harvests. Both genotypes presented β-carotene (265.5–1669.4 μg/100 g), lutein (37.6–100.7 μg/100 g), β-cryptoxanthin (16.3–56.5 μg/100 g) and α-carotene (7.8–59.3 μg/100 g) as the major carotenoids. In both harvests, the β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin and α-carotene levels were higher in the Olivier genotype, whereas the lutein content was higher in the Waldy Cati 30 genotype. Due to higher sunlight exposure, the fruits harvested in 2004 showed higher total carotenoid contents than those from the 2003 harvest. Acerola, especially the Olivier genotype, with 148–283 RE/100 g, can be considered as a good source of provitamin A.     

Evaluation of extraction method for the analysis of carotenoids in fruits and vegetables

This study evaluated a suitable extraction method for a wide range of sample matrices in carotenoid analysis. Using canned tomato juice as a representative sample, it is shown that two solvents of low biological hazard, ethanol and hexane are the most suitable for extracting carotenoids from the matrix. The use of double extraction, each with 35 ml of ethanol:hexane mixture (4:3, by volume), resulted in good recoveries of carotenoids (lycopene 96%, α-carotene 102% and β-carotene 93–100%). Coefficients of variation conducted on different days were: lycopene 5% and β-carotene 7%. An application of the established method to various kinds of fruit and vegetable matrices is also shown, using carrot and spinach as representative samples of root and leafy vegetables, for determining recoveries of added carotenoids. The average percent recoveries of added carotenoids from canned tomato juice, carrot and spinach were: 101, 99.8 and 101% for α-carotene (12.4, 24.8, 49.6 and 99.2 μg/10 ml of added α-carotene); and 98.1, 99.7 and 96.1 percent for β-carotene (25.5, 50.9, 101 and 201 μg/10 ml of added β-carotene). These similar recoveries over the explored concentration ranges confirm that the application of established extraction method is unaffected by differences in matrix composition of the samples.     

An in vitro model to study the intestinal absorption of carotenoids

An in vitro cell culture model to assess the intestinal absorption of carotenoids is described. When supplemented with taurocholate and oleic acid, differentiated Caco-2 cells on membranes are able to produce chylomicrons. Under conditions mimicking the in vivo postprandial state, Caco-2 cells take up carotenoids and secrete them incorporated into chylomicrons; the extents of absorption of all-trans, 9-cis, 13-cis β-carotene, α-carotene, lutein, lycopene were 11%, 2%, 3%, 10%, 7%, and 3%, respectively. Saturation of β-carotene transport through Caco-2 cells occurred at concentrations (>15 μM) higher than “physiological” concentrations. Finally, retinol supplementation resulted in an 1.7-fold increase in β-carotene transport. The data suggest that (1) the intestinal absorption of carotenoids is facilitated by the participation of a specific epithelial transporter and (2) retinol promotes β-carotene incorporation into larger, retinyl ester-enriched chylomicrons. The present in vitro cell culture system is a relevant model to study the intestinal absorption of carotenoids at the molecular level.     

Changes in colour,antioxidant activities and carotenoids (lycopene, β-carotene,lutein) of marigold flower (Tagetes erecta L.) resulting from different drying processes

Marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) flower has long been used as a food colourant and ingredient in human food and animal feed. Drying is one of the most important processes for producing marigold powder. Therefore the effects of different drying processes, namely freeze drying (FD), hot air drying (HA) and combined far-infrared radiation with hot air convection (FIR-HA), on the colour, carotenoids (lycopene, β-carotene and lutein) and phenolic compounds of marigold flowers were evaluated. The results indicate that colour changes were less for FIR-HA dried marigold than after FD and HA drying. Different drying methods resulted in changes in the content of individual bioactive compounds. HA gave the highest content of β-carotene (15.5 mg/100 g dry weight (DW)), while FIR-HA and FD provided the highest levels of lutein and lycopene. The predominant phenolic acids in all samples of marigold are p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid and sinapic acid. Gallic, protocatechuic, caffeic, syringic, p-coumaric and ferulic acid showed the highest content in marigold after FIR-HA drying. These results demonstrate that FIR-HA should be considered as a suitable drying method for marigold with respect to preserving its colour, antioxidant properties and bioactive compounds and provided useful information for industrial production of marigold powder.     

Mastication effects on carotenoid bioaccessibility from mango fruit tissue

The release of carotenoids from fresh fruits or vegetables is determined by the encapsulating plant tissue matrix, intracellular carotenoid location within the cell, and the mastication process. The objectives of this study were to assess the particle sizes obtained after mastication of mango fruit tissue, and how the resulting degree of plant tissue rupture affects carotenoid bioaccessibility. A fine and a coarse chewer were selected after screening 20 healthy volunteers for in vivo human mastication, and the collected chewed boluses were subjected to wet sieving fractionation, followed by an in vitro gastric and small intestinal digestion model. Confocal micrographs show that the smallest particle size fraction (0.075 mm) consists mostly of fragmented cells and the largest size fraction (2.8 mm) contains bulky clusters of whole cells and vascular fibers. Higher amounts of total carotenoids (211–320 μg/100 g) were observed in the larger particle size fraction (2.8 mm) relative to the 1 mm (192–249 μg/100 g) and 0.075 mm fractions (136–199 μg/100 g). Smaller particles showed a greater % release of total carotenoids after in vitro digestion. Xanthophyll derivatives are more bioaccessible than β-carotene for all particle sizes. The effects of particle size or degree of fine vs coarse chewing are unexpectedly small (p > 0.05), but the process of chewing substantially reduced the release of β-carotene and xanthophylls by 34% and 18%, respectively. While there is a (small) particle size effect, this appears to not be the primary factor controlling bioaccessibility for soft tissues such as mango, in contrast to previous reports that a single cell wall appears to be enough to prevent bioaccessibility of carotenoids in more robust carrot tissues.     

Citharexylum solanaceum fruit extracts: Profiles of phenolic compounds and carotenoids and their relation with ROS and RNS scavenging capacities

Citharexylum solanaceum is a native fruit from Brazil, which both bioactive compounds and antioxidant potential were not yet investigated. Thus, the freeze-dried extracts of seed and pulp + skin of C. solanaceum fruits were obtained after solid-liquid extraction with ethanol and their bioactive compounds composition, namely phenolic compounds and carotenoids, were determined. The antioxidant capacity of both extracts against physiologically relevant reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) was further investigated. Both C. solanaceum extracts showed high contents of phenolic compounds; however, pulp + skin extract presented 2.4-times more phenolic compounds (33.54 mg/g) than the seed extract (14.09 mg/g). Verbascoside (phenylpropanoid) was the major compound identified in both extracts (11–25 mg/g). Regarding the carotenoid composition, all-trans-lutein (14–42 μg/g) and all-trans-β-carotene (13–44 μg/g) were the major compounds in both extracts. The high content of phenolic compounds and carotenoids in pulp + skin extract might explain its higher scavenging capacity against all the ROS/RNS as compared to seed extract. In general, both extracts showed better scavenging capacity for the RNS than for the ROS. Our results indicate that C. solanaceum fruits can be explored as an important natural source of antioxidant compounds.     

The effect of pectin concentration and degree of methyl-esterification on the in vitro bioaccessibility of β-carotene-enriched emulsions

Soluble fibers, like pectin, are known to influence the physicochemical processes during the digestion of dietary fat and may therefore affect the absorption of lipophilic micronutrients such as carotenoids. The objective of the current work was to investigate whether the pectin concentration and degree of methyl-esterification (DM) influence the bioaccessibility of carotenoids loaded in the oil phase of oil-in-water emulsions. The in vitro β-carotene bioaccessibility was determined for different oil-in-water emulsions in which 1 or 2% citrus pectin with a DM of 99%, 66% and 14% was present. Results show that pectin concentration and DM influence the initial emulsion properties. The most stable emulsions with the smallest oil droplets (D(v,0.9) of 15–16 μm) were obtained when medium or high methyl-esterified pectin was present in a 2% concentration while gel-like pectin structures (D(v,0.9) of 114 μm), entrapping oil droplets, were observed in the case where low methyl-esterified pectin was present in the aqueous emulsion phase. During in vitro stomach digestion, these gel-like structures, entrapping β-carotene loaded oil droplets, significantly enlarged (D(v,0.9) of 738 μm), whereas the emulsion structure could be preserved when the medium or high methyl-esterified pectin was present. Initial emulsion viscosity differences, due to pectin concentration and especially due to pectin DM, largely disappeared during in vitro digestion, but were still significant after the stomach digestion phase. The observed differences in emulsion structure before and during in vitro digestion only resulted in a significant difference between emulsions containing low methyl-esterified pectin (β-carotene bioaccessibility of 33–37%) and medium/high methyl-esterified pectin (β-carotene bioaccessibility of 56–62%).     

In vitro study of anti-oxidative effects of β-carotene and α-lipoic acid for nanocapsulated lipids

In this study we attempted to assess the efficacy of the in vitro activities of β-carotene and α-lipoic acid in conjugation with an encapsulated lipid. Nanoemulsion was prepared and freeze-dried to get nanocapsules. Highest encapsulation efficiency 84.32 ± 1.08% was achieved for α-lipoic acid nanocapsules, whereas for β-carotene nanocapsules it was 79.63 ± 1.41%. Morphology study showed that the dried capsules had an irregular, rough surface. Both anti-oxidants were equally effective in releasing core materials. Complete release of the total lipid occurred within 210 min from both β-carotene and α-lipoic acid bearing nanocapsules. Stability study revealed that β-carotene nanocapsules showed decrease in oil content from 79.63 g lipid to 72.8 g lipid for every 100 g lipid encapsulated, in 3 months, whereas α-lipoic acid nanocapsules retained oil much better, the oil retention being from 84.32 g lipid to 78.08 g lipid per 100 g lipid encapsulated. DPPH radical scavenging activity of β-carotene and α-lipoic acid ranged from 62.75% and 44.13% to 32.94% and 36.95% (after 90 days) respectively. Reducing activity of β-carotene was higher (absorbance 0.492 to 0.291 at 90 days) compared to α-lipoic acid (absorbance 0.243 to 0.109 after 90 days). Again β-carotene and α-lipoic acid metal-chelation activity ranged from 47.65% and 48.59% to 32.315% and 39.29% after 90 days.     

Determination of thermal oxidation and oxidation products of β-carotene in corn oil triacylglycerols

A reversed phase HPLC-DAD coupled to APCI-MS method is reported for the determination of the degradation of β-carotene and characterization of the oxidation products in corn oil. Corn oil containing β-carotene was oxidized in the Rancimat at 110 °C from 1 to 14 h. A significant degradation of β-carotene was observed in corn oil during accelerated thermal oxidation. A total of eight different oxidized products of β-carotene were identified, which includes 8′-apo-β-carotenal, 6′-apo-β-carotenal, 5,6-epoxy-8′-apo-β-carotenal, β-carotene-2,2′-dione, 13-Z-5,6,5′,6′-diepoxy-β-carotene, all-E-5,8-epoxy-β-carotene, all-E-5,6-epoxy-β-carotene, and 15-Z-5,6-epoxy-β-carotene. Corn oil triacylglycerols (TAGs) oxidation products were also identified using isocratic HPLC–ESI-MS. It was found that β-carotene promoted oxidation of TAGs especially at longer exposure times. For the first time two new classes of oxidized TAGs have been identified in corn oil, which were epidioxy bis-hydroperoxides and hydroxy bis-hydroperoxides. Other oxidation products of TAGs were mono-epoxides, mono-hydroperoxides, and epoxy hydroperoxides. It was found that complementing the HPLC-DAD method for β-carotene with ESI-MS method for TAGs oxidation provides a comprehensive set of analytical tools to characterize carotenoids and triacylglycerols oxidation and degradation in edible oils.     

Analysis of antioxidant activity and antioxidant constituents of Chinese toon

Antioxidant activity of the methanol and water extracts of Chinese toon (Toona sinensis) leaf was evaluated using DPPH radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation assays. Contents of four major types of antioxidants including β-carotene, ascorbate, α-tocopherol and phenolics were also quantified. Open column chromatography followed by semi-preparative HPLC were applied to separate phenolic antioxidants whose contents were subsequently determined by HPLC. The methanol extract demonstrated much higher antioxidant activity than the water extract. Contents of β-carotene, ascorbate, α-tocopherol and phenolics were 1.23 μmol g^?1, 34.2 μmol g^?1, 2.40 μmol g^?1 and 872 μmol gallic acid equivalents g^?1, respectively. Six phenols were isolated. Their structures were characterized as 5-O-galloylquinic acid, gallic acid, methyl gallate, β-1,2,6-tri-O-galloyl-d-glucose, quercetin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside and quercetin 3-O-(2′′-O-galloyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside, respectively. The results indicate that phenolic compounds are the dominant antioxidants in Chinese toon. The compounds β-1,2,6-tri-O-galloyl-d-glucose and quercetin 3-O-(2′′-O-galloyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside were reported for the first time in Chinese toon.     

Major carotenoid composition of Brazilian Valencia orange juice: Identification and quantification by HPLC

The carotenoid composition of Brazilian Valencia orange juice was determined by open column chromatography (OCC) and high-performance liquid chromatography. Carotenoid pigments were extracted using acetone and saponified using 10% methanolic potassium hydroxide. Sixteen pigments were isolated by OCC and identified as α-carotene, ζ-carotene, β-carotene, α-cryptoxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein-5,6-epoxide, violaxanthin, lutein, antheraxanthin, zeaxanthin, luteoxanthin A, luteoxanthin B, mutatoxanthin A, mutatoxanthin B, auroxanthin B and trollichrome B. Thirteen carotenoid pigments were separated using a ternary gradient (acetonitrile–methanol–ethyl acetate) elution on a C₁₈ reversed-phase column. Among these, violaxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, ζ-carotene, α-carotene, and β-carotene were quantified. The total carotenoid content was 12 ± 6.7 mg/l, and the major carotenoids were lutein (23%), β-cryptoxanthin (21%), and zeaxanthin (20%).     

Polyphenols,carotenoids, and ascorbic acid in underutilized medicinal vegetables

The polyphenols, carotenoids, ascorbic acid, and protein were determined in 24 underutilized medicinal vegetables from Indonesia. Anacardium occidentale, Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr., and Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. leaves were rich sources of flavonoids, with 118–144 mg/100 g fresh weight. Quercetin, kaempferol, and chlorogenic acid were the predominant polyphenols among those measured in vegetables. Polyscias pinnata leaves and Solanum torvum Swartz fruits had the most phenolic acids, with 53 and 36 mg/100 g, respectively. Moringa pterygosperma had the most carotenoids among vegetables, with 14 mg β-carotene equivalents (βCE)/100 g. Ascorbic acid content of fresh vegetables was 12.03–494.43 mg/100 g. A. occidentale, S. androgynus, Ocimum americanum L., Cosmos caudatus H.B.K., and Carica papaya L. (papaya) leaves had more than 100 mg ascorbic acid/100 g. Thus, a number of underutilized vegetables from Indonesia may be rich sources of functional components including polyphenols and ascorbic acid.     

Pasteurization of citrus juices with ohmic heating to preserve the carotenoid profile

This study was carried out to assess, for the first time, the effect of ohmic heating on the carotenoid profile of two citrus fruit juices: grapefruit and blood orange. Two heat treatments were designed to obtain pasteurization values of 50 and 150 min (Tref = 70 °C and z-value = 10 °C) with ohmic heating as compared to conventional heating. The results showed that xanthophyll losses could reach 70% for epoxyxanthophylls (cis-violaxanthin and cis-antheraxanthin) and 40% for hydroxyxanthophylls (β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin) with conventional heating, but losses were under 30% and 20%, respectively, with ohmic heating. Carotene species (lycopene and β-carotene) were stable regardless of the treatment. No negative non-thermal effects of ohmic heating were shown on carotenoids. Loss simulations of the studied carotenoids showed that the high temperatures reached with ohmic heating during pasteurization could substantially increase the organoleptic and nutritional quality of acid carotenoid-rich juices.Industrial relevanceCitrus are the top fruit crops in terms of world trade. This craze for them -particularly orange and grapefruit- is notably due to their high content in organoleptic and nutritional compounds of interest and among them carotenoids. About 50% of the Citrus production is processed in juice. From the growing variety of products, minimal processed juices now have a significant market share. This work assessed for the first time the effect of ohmic heating, a thermal method for stabilizing juices while minimizing the impact on the juice quality, on the carotenoid profiles of blood orange and grapefruit juice. Pasteurization with ohmic heating was proven to be a very good alternative for protecting carotenoids and especially xanthophylls compared to conventional heating. These results will help in designing ohmic heating process parameters for optimizing the overall quality of carotenoid-rich fruit juices.     

Bioactive substance contents and antioxidant capacity of raw and blanched vegetables

Five commonly consumed vegetables in Malaysia namely, four-angled bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus D.C.), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), long bean (Vigna sesquipedalis L.), snow pea (Pisum sativum var. macrocarpon L.) and snap pea (Pisum sativum) were blanched in boiling water for 10 min. The contents of total phenolics, ascorbic acid and β-carotene, and the antioxidant capacity as typified by β-carotene and free radical scavenging activity (DPPH) assays were determined for the raw and blanched vegetables. The study revealed that blanching caused a significant (p < 0.05) increase in β-carotene content [fresh (389–539 µg/100 g), blanched (510–818 µg/100 g)], except in snow pea. Conversely, there was a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in ascorbic acid content [fresh (1.2–7.8 mg/100 g), blanched (0.67–3.8 mg/100 g)]. After blanching, the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity either decreased or increased depending on the type of vegetables. The total phenolic content was positively correlated with the antioxidant activity of the studied vegetables to some extent, but not with ascorbic acid or β-carotene.Industrial relevanceBeans (four-angled bean, French bean and long bean), and peas (snow and snap pea) are commonly consumed vegetables in Malaysia. However, the scientific information regarding blanching and its effect on the total phenolic content and antioxidant activities is very limited. This work showed that blanching caused an increase in the carotene, total phenolic content and antioxidant activities in some of the selected vegetables. This work is important since, consumption of raw vegetables does not have high nutritional qualities and antioxidant activities as shown in this work.     

Air-dried capsicum annuum var. acuminatum medium and big: Determination of bioactive constituents,antioxidant activity and carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes inhibition

In the present study the total phenols, flavonoids, carotenoids and capsaicinoids content, the in vitro antioxidant and hypoglycemic activities of extracts of air-dried fruits from two Capsicum annuum cultivars were investigated. A different composition between the two cultivars was evidenced. C. annuum var. acuminatum medium extract presented a major content of phenols, carotenoids, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin while C. annuum var. acuminatum big extract is characterized by the highest quercetin, luteolin and kaempferol content with 68.0, 87.6 and 29.7 μg/g dried weight, respectively, analyzed by HPLC. Medium pepper showed the highest radical scavenging activity in DPPH assay (IC₅₀ of 85.3 μg/ml) while big pepper have an interesting activity in ABTS assay (IC₅₀ of 16.4 μg/ml) and the highest inhibition of linoleic acid oxidation with an IC₅₀ value of 1.2 μg/ml after 30 min of incubation. A selective inhibitory activity against α-amylase was demonstrated for C. annuum var. acuminatum big lipophilic fraction (IC₅₀ values of 8.7 μg/ml). The obtained results suggest that C. annuum cultivars could be used as valuable flavor with functional properties for foods.     

Lycopene and beta carotene concentration in aril oil of gac (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng) as influenced by aril-drying process and solvents extraction

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the lycopene and beta carotene concentration in aril oil of gac as influenced by extracting solvents and drying methods. The solvent extractions namely chloroform:methanol (2:1 v/v), petroleum ether and hexane were evaluated for optimal extracting solvent of each carotenoid. Three different drying methods were used including hot-air (HA), low relative humidity air drying (LRH) and far-infrared radiation (FIR). The extracts of different solvents were exhibited to have different levels of lycopene and beta-carotene. Chloroform:methanol (2:1 v/v) showed higher lycopene and beta-carotene content in aril oil (0.49 and 1.18 mg/g) than that of fresh aril (0.045 and 0.009 mg/g). Among the different drying methods, HA was found to provide the highest amount of lycopene (0.82 mg/g DW) in the aril oil, followed by FIR (0.67 mg/g DW) and LRH (0.56 mg/g DW). Interestingly, HA dried aril oil had higher content of lycopene than that of control (fresh). However, processing methods are known to have variable effects on bioactive compounds of plant samples. Effects could vary from little or no change to significant losses, or even enhancement in antioxidant properties.     

Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Instant Kunun-Zaki Flour Blends from Sorghum and Mango Mesocarp Flours

Instant Kunun-zaki, a fermented non-alcoholic sorghum beverage, was prepared by mixing different per cent blend ratios of unmalted sorghum flour: mango mesocarp flour (90:0, 75:15, 70:20, 65:25, and 60:30) with 10% malted sorghum. Proximate compositions, chemical and functional properties of the blends were analyzed. Addition of mango mesocarp flour significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the ash (1.31 to 1.75%), crude fibre (2.57 to 3.39%) and decreased significantly (p < 0.05) the energy content (368.21 to 354.67 kcal/100 g) of the blends. The β-carotene content also increased from 95.65 to 139.13 μg/100 g with increased mango mesocarp flour. Hygroscopicity increased significantly (p < 0.05) from 6.10 to 10.28% while viscosity of the blends decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 1715 to 1195.46 cP. Mango mesocarp flour addition increased the ash, crude fibre and introduced β-carotene into the product.     

Cyanidin-3-glucoside,nutritionally important constituents and in vitro antioxidant activities of Santalum album L. berries

Anthocyanins are ubiquitous plant pigments. They are hydrophilic, and have high tinctorial value hence, used as natural food colorant. The main aim of this study was characterization of Santalum album L. berries for its pigment content, nutritionally important phytoconstituents and functional attributes. Major pigment identified was cyanidin-3-glucoside (0.21% FW) as confirmed by spectral characteristics including LC–MS. Nutrients such as total carbohydrates (8.5), proteins (5.8), free amino acids (0.8 g), oil (1.5 g), ascorbic acid (1.5 μg), tocopherols (0.3 mg) and niacin (5.2 mg) per 100 g berries were determined along with total soluble solids (13.4°Brix) and phenols (3.1 mg GAE/g). Reducing power and DPPH· scavenging assays showed highest activity in methanol extract, which also efficiently protected bleaching of β-carotene (EC₅₀ 285 μg/mL) in β-carotene–linoleate model. Pigment rich crude extract was not toxic to HepG2 cells during 24 h exposure, whereas cyanidin-3-glucoside was cytotoxic (IC₅₀ 0.1 μg/mL).     

Carotenoids in crabs from marine and fresh waters of India

Quantitative and qualitative distribution of carotenoids in meat and shell of major marine crab (Charybdis cruciata) and fresh water crab (Potamon potamon) from Indian waters was assessed. The total carotenoid content was low in both species of crabs analysed, highest being 11.0 μg/g in shell of marine crab. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) of carotenoid extracts indicated that the marine crab contained astaxanthin and its esters as major carotenoids and zeaxanthin was major carotenoid in fresh water crab extract. Astaxanthin and its esters contributed 67.6 and 65.5 g/100 g of total carotenoids in meat and shell of marine crab. The zeaxanthin content (g/100 g) in the carotenoid extract of meat and shell of fresh water crab was 42.0 and 74.8 of total carotenoids. The carotenoid extracts from both the crabs had higher level of unsaturated fatty acids. Oleic acid (C18:1) and palmitoleic acid (C16:1) were the predominant unsaturated fatty acid in carotenoid extract from meat of marine and fresh water crab, respectively. In the carotenoid extract from shell, eicosenoic acid (C20:1) in marine crab and linolenic acid (C18:3) in fresh water crab were the major unsaturated fatty acids.