Estimation of the dietary intake of 13 priority additives in France,Italy, the UK and Ireland as part of the FACET project

The aim of this study was to assess the dietary exposure of 13 priority additives in four European countries (France, Italy, the UK and Ireland) using the Flavourings, Additives and Contact Materials Exposure Task (FACET) software. The studied additives were benzoates (E210–213), nitrites (E249–250) and sulphites (E220–228), butylated hydroxytoluene (E321), polysorbates (E432–436), sucroses esters and sucroglycerides (E473–474), polyglycerol esters of fatty acids (E475), stearoyl-lactylates (E481–482), sorbitan esters (E493–494 and E491–495), phosphates (E338–343/E450–452), aspartame (E951) and acesulfame (E950). A conservative approach (based on individual consumption data combined with maximum permitted levels (Tier 2)) was compared with more refined estimates (using a fitted distribution of concentrations based on data provided by the food industry (Tier 3)). These calculations demonstrated that the estimated intake is below the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for nine of the studied additives. However, there was a potential theoretical exceedance of the ADI observed for four additives at Tier 3 for high consumers (97.5th percentile) among children: E220–228 in the UK and Ireland, E432–436 and E481–482 in Ireland, Italy and the UK, and E493–494 in all countries. The mean intake of E493–494 could potentially exceed the ADI for one age group of children (aged 1–4 years) in the UK. For adults, high consumers only in all countries had a potential intake higher than the ADI for E493–494 at Tier 3 (an additive mainly found in bakery wares). All other additives examined had an intake below the ADI. Further refined exposure assessments may be warranted to provide a more in-depth investigation for those additives that exceeded the ADIs in this paper. This refinement may be undertaken by the introduction of additive occurrence data, which take into account the actual presence of these additives in the different food groups.     

Assessment of dietary exposure in the French population to 13 selected food colours,preservatives, antioxidants,stabilizers, emulsifiers and sweeteners

The results of French intake estimates for 13 food additives prioritized by the methods proposed in the 2001 Report from the European Commission on Dietary Food Additive Intake in the European Union are reported. These 13 additives were selected using the first and second tiers of the three-tier approach. The first tier was based on theoretical food consumption data and the maximum permitted level of additives. The second tier used real individual food consumption data and the maximum permitted level of additives for the substances which exceeded the acceptable daily intakes (ADI) in the first tier. In the third tier reported in this study, intake estimates were calculated for the 13 additives (colours, preservatives, antioxidants, stabilizers, emulsifiers and sweeteners) according to two modelling assumptions corresponding to two different food habit scenarios (assumption 1: consumers consume foods that may or may not contain food additives, and assumption 2: consumers always consume foods that contain additives) when possible. In this approach, real individual food consumption data and the occurrence/use-level of food additives reported by the food industry were used. Overall, the results of the intake estimates are reassuring for the majority of additives studied since the risk of exceeding the ADI was low, except for nitrites, sulfites and annatto, whose ADIs were exceeded by either children or adult consumers or by both populations under one and/or two modelling assumptions. Under the first assumption, the ADI is exceeded for high consumers among adults for nitrites and sulfites (155 and 118.4%, respectively) and among children for nitrites (275%). Under the second assumption, the average nitrites dietary exposure in children exceeds the ADI (146.7%). For high consumers, adults exceed the nitrite and sulfite ADIs (223 and 156.4%, respectively) and children exceed the nitrite, annatto and sulfite ADIs (416.7, 124.6 and 130.6%, respectively).     

Estimate of intake of sulfites in the Belgian adult population

An exposure assessment was performed to estimate the usual daily intake of sulfites in the Belgian adult population. Food consumption data were retrieved from the national food consumption survey. In a first step, individual food consumption data were multiplied with the maximum permitted use levels for sulfites, expressed as sulphur dioxide, per food group (Tier 2). In a second step, on the basis of a literature review of the occurrence of sulfites in different foods, the results of the Tier 2 exposure assessment and available occurrence data from the control programme of the competent authority, a refined list of foods was drafted for the quantification of sulphite. Quantification of sulphite was performed by a high-performance ion chromatography method with eluent conductivity detector in beers and potato products. Individual food consumption data were then multiplied with the actual average concentrations of sulfite per food group, or the maximum permitted levels in case actual levels were not available (partial Tier 3). Usual intakes were calculated using the Nusser method. The mean intake of sulfites was 0.34 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1 (Tier 2), corresponding to 49% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI) and 0.19 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1, corresponding to 27% of the ADI (partial Tier 3). The food group contributing most to the intake of sulfites was wines. The results showed that the intake of sulfites is likely to be below the ADI in Belgium. However, there are indications that high consumers of wine have an intake around the ADI.     

Dietary intake of four artificial sweeteners by Irish pre-school children

In spite of rigorous pre- and post-market reviews of safety, there remains a high level of debate regarding the use of artificial sweeteners in foods. Young children are of particular interest when assessing food chemical exposure as a result of their unique food consumption patterns and comparatively higher exposure to food chemicals on a body weight basis when compared with the general population. The present study examined the intakes of four intense sweeteners (acesulfame K, aspartame, saccharin, sucralose) in the diets of children aged 1–4 years using food consumption and sweetener presence data from the Irish National Pre-school Nutrition Survey (2010–11) and analytical data for sweetener concentration in foods obtained from a national testing programme. Four exposure assessment scenarios were conducted using the available data on sweetener occurrence and concentration. The results demonstrated that the mean daily intakes for all four sweeteners were below the acceptable daily intake (ADI) (17–31%), even considering the most conservative assumptions regarding sweetener presence and concentration. High consumer intakes (P95) were also below the ADI for the four sweeteners when more realistic estimates of exposure were considered. Both sweetener occurrence and concentration data had a considerable effect on reducing the estimated intake values, with a combined reduction in intakes of 95% when expressed as a proportion of the ADI. Flavoured drinks were deemed to be a key contributor to artificial sweetener intakes in this population cohort. It was concluded that there is no health risk to Irish pre-school children at current dietary intake levels of the sweeteners studied.     

Development of a quantitative GC-FID method for the determination of stearoyl-lactylates (E481/482) in foods

Sodium and calcium salts of stearoyl-lactylates (SLs) are food emulsifiers especially used in bread and bakery products to improve texture. They should be used at the lowest level at which the desired technological effect is achieved in a specific food category and at amounts not exceeding the maximums set by European Commission Regulation No. 1129/2011. In order to be able to evaluate whether these emulsifiers are used correctly but also to evaluate whether the commercial additive formulations comply with legislation, a quantitative GC-FID method was developed. An internal standard (nonadecanoyl-1-lactylate) was synthesized in-house and pure ester standards were isolated from commercial additive formulations. The method showed a limit of detection of 0.04 and a limit of quantification of 0.12 mg esters ml^?1. The commercial additive formulations analysed proved to be complex mixtures of free lactic and fatty acids together with only 50–60% esters. Besides SLs important amounts of palmitoyl-lactylates were present. Different food matrices (with low- and high-fat contents) were spiked with commercial SL formulations and recoveries ranged between 85% and 109%. Determination of SLs in commercial foods (such as bakery and bread) indicated that pre-treatment with amylase was essential to determine accurately the SL content due to the interaction of SL with the amylose.     

Assessment of Korean consumer exposure to sodium saccharin,aspartame and stevioside

The dietary intakes of sodium saccharin, aspartame and stevioside were estimated on the basis of food consumption data of the Korean consumer and the concentration of sweeteners in processed foods. Results were compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of sweeteners. Among the 28 food categories for which the application of sodium saccharin, aspartame and stevioside is permitted in Korea, they were detected in 5, 12 and 13 categories, respectively. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of sodium saccharin and aspartame were high in infants and children, whereas the EDI of stevioside was high in adolescents and adults. The most highly consumed sweetener was aspartame, and the highest EDI/ADI ratio was found for sodium saccharin. The main food categories contributing to sweetener consumption were beverages, including alcoholic beverages. For most Korean consumers, the EDIs were no greater than 20% of their corresponding ADI; however, the EDI of sodium saccharin for conservative consumers aged 1–2 years reached 60% of their ADI.     

Predictive modelling of the exposure to steviol glycosides in Irish patients aged 1-3 years with phenylketonuria and cow’s milk protein allergy

Children with Phenylketonuria (PKU) and severe cow’s milk protein allergy (CMPA) consume prescribed, specially formulated, foods for special medical purposes (FSMPs) as well as restricted amounts of normal foods. These patients are exposed to artificial sweeteners from the consumption of a combination of free and prescribed foods. Young patients with PKU and CMPA have a higher risk of exceeding acceptable daily intakes (ADI) for additives than age-matched healthy children. A predictive modelling approach has been adapted successfully to assess the additive exposure of young patients with PKU and CMPA to artificial sweeteners. Steviol glycosides (E960) are at various stages of regulatory approval for the various food categories in the EU but are not as yet permitted for use in products intended for young children. The aim of this study was to predict potential steviol glycoside exposure in young children with PKU and CMPA considering the potential for future provisions for the use of this sweetener. The recent introduction of steviol glycosides means that no exposure data are available for children with CMPA and PKU. Food consumption data were derived from the food consumption survey data of healthy young children in Ireland from the National Preschool and Nutrition Survey (NPNS, 2010–11). Specially formulated amino acid-based FSMPs are used to replace whole or milk protein foods and were included in the exposure model to replace restricted foods. The recommendations to ensure adequate protein intake in these patients were used to determine FSMP intake. Exposure assessment results indicated that the maximum permitted level (MPL) for FSMPs would warrant careful consideration to avoid exposures above the ADI. These data can be used to inform recommendations for the medical nutrition industry.     

Estimation of inorganic food additive (nitrite,nitrate and sulfur dioxide), antioxidant (BHA and BHT), processing agent (propylene glycol) and sweetener (sodium saccharin) concentrations in foods and their daily intake based on official inspection results in Japan in fiscal year 1998

The mean concentration and daily intake of inorganic food additives (nitrite, nitrate, and sulfur dioxide), antioxidants (BHA and BHT), a processing agent (propylene glycol), and a sweetener (sodium saccharin) were estimated based on the results of an analysis of 34,489 food samples obtained in official inspections by 106 local governments in Japan in fiscal year 1998. The ratios of mean concentrations of these seven food additives to each allowable limit were 20.0%, 53.9%, 15.5%, 6.2%, 0.4%, 18.5%, and 5.7%, respectively. The daily intakes of these food additives estimated from their concentrations in foods and the daily consumption of foods were 0.205, 0.532, 4.31, 0.119, 0.109, 77.5, and 7.27 mg per person, respectively. These amounts were 6.8%, 0.3%, 12.3%, 0.5%, 0.7%, 6.2%, and 2.6% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI), respectively, when body weight was assumed to be 50 kg. No remarkable differences in the daily intakes of these seven food additives or the ratios to the ADI were observed compared with the results based on the official inspections in fiscal years 1994 and 1996.     

Estimate of dietary exposure to sulphites in child and adult populations in the Basque Country

Sulphites are widely used as a preservative and antioxidant additive in food. The aim of this study was to assess dietary sulphite intake in adults aged 35–65 years and in children aged 4–18 years living in the Basque Country, northern Spain. We determined sulphite concentrations in 909 samples covering 16 food types. The maximum permitted levels were exceeded in 17% of samples. Making recommended assumptions for non-quantifiable results, estimates of mean lower and upper bounds were calculated for sulphite concentrations in each food type. These sulphite data were combined with consumption data derived from 8417 adults from the European Prospective Investigation in Cancer and Nutrition cohort in Gipuzkoa, recruited in 1992–1995 using a diet history method, and 1055 children from the Basque Country Nutrition Children Survey, conducted in 2004–2005 using two 24-h recall questionnaires to assess diet. The results were compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI) proposed by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The mean dietary exposure to sulphites was 0.08 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1, only 11% of the ADI in the overall group of children (4–18 years old), but the acceptable intake was exceeded by 4% of 4–6 year olds. For the adults (35–65 years old), the mean dietary exposure was 0.31 mg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 45% of the ADI, but the acceptable intake was exceeded in 14.6% of cases. The major contributing foods were minced meat and other meat products for children and wine for adults.     

Dietary exposures for the safety assessment of seven emulsifiers commonly added to foods in the United States and implications for safety

ABSTRACT

Dietary exposure assessment using food-consumption data and ingredient-use level is essential for assessing the safety of food ingredients. Dietary exposure estimates are compared with safe intake levels, such as the acceptable daily intake (ADI). The ADI is estimated by applying a safety factor to an experimentally determined no-observed-adverse-effect level of a test substance. Two food ingredients classified as emulsifiers, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and polysorbate 80 (P80), received attention recently due to their putative adverse effects on gut microbiota. Because no published dietary exposure estimates for commonly used emulsifiers exist for the US population, the current investigation focused on the estimation of dietary exposure to seven emulsifiers: CMC, P80, lecithin, mono- and diglycerides (MDGs), stearoyl lactylates, sucrose esters, and polyglycerol polyricinoleate. Using maximum-use levels obtained from publicly available sources, dietary exposures to these emulsifiers were estimated for the US population (aged 2 years and older) for two time periods (1999–2002 and 2003–10) using 1- and 2-day food-consumption data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, and 10–14-day food-consumption data from NPD Group, Inc.’s National Eating Trends – Nutrient Intake Database. Our analyses indicated that among the emulsifiers assessed, lecithin and MDGs have the highest mean exposures at about 60 and about 80 mg kg^–1 bw day^–1, respectively, whereas the exposure to CMC is half to one-third that of lecithin or MDGs; and the exposure to P80 is approximately half that of CMC. The review of available safety information such as ADIs established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), in light of our updated dietary exposure estimates for these seven emulsifiers, did not raise safety concerns at the current specified levels of use. Additionally, by examining two time periods (1999–2002, 2003–10), it was concluded that there is no evidence that exposure levels to emulsifiers have substantially increased.     

Longitudinal modelling of the exposure of young UK patients with PKU to acesulfame K and sucralose

ABSTRACT

Artificial sweeteners are used in protein substitutes intended for the dietary management of inborn errors of metabolism (phenylketonuria, PKU) to improve the variety of medical foods available to patients and ensure dietary adherence to the prescribed course of dietary management. These patients can be exposed to artificial sweeteners from the combination of free and prescribed foods. Young children have a higher risk of exceeding acceptable daily intakes (ADI) for additives than adults, due to higher food intakes per kg body weight. Young patients with PKU aged 1–3 years can be exposed to higher levels of artificial sweeteners from these dual sources than normal healthy children and are at a higher risk of exceeding the ADI. Standard intake assessment methods are not adequate to assess the additive exposure of young patients with PKU. The aim of this study was to estimate the combination effect on the intake of artificial sweeteners and the impact of the introduction of new provisions for an artificial sweetener (sucralose, E955) on exposure of PKU patients using a validated probabilistic model. Food consumption data were derived from the food consumption survey data of healthy young children in the United Kingdom from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS, 1992–2012). Specially formulated protein substitutes as foods for special medical purposes (FSMPs) were included in the exposure model to replace restricted foods. Inclusion of these protein substitutes is based on recommendations to ensure adequate protein intake in these patients. Exposure assessment results indicated the availability of sucralose for use in FSMPs for PKU leads to changes in intakes in young patients. These data further support the viability of probabilistic modelling as a means to estimate food additive exposure in patients consuming medical nutrition products.     

Estimate of the theoretical maximum daily intake of Sunset Yellow FCF by the Brazilian population

ABSTRACT

This study estimated the theoretical maximum daily intake (TMDI) of Sunset Yellow (SY) synthetic food dye by the Brazilian population through food consumption data from the Household Budget Survey (HBS) of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 2008/09). The study covered the population in urban and rural areas in the five regions of the country, and from different age groups, in order to verify if it were possible to exceed the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of SY, which is 4.0 mg kg^–1 body weight. This was assessed by cross-checking food products containing this dye from the largest supermarket chains in Brazil with data from the HBS-IBGE 2008/09. These data showed that the average consumption of SY per capita did not exceed the ADI in any of the aforementioned population groups. However, when considering food consumption in urban and rural areas (279 and 260 mg of SY day^–1), in the five regions of the country (260–338 mg of SY day^–1), and for adolescents (332 mg SY day^–1), it is noted that part of the population could be exceeding the recommended ADI, which may pose health risks. Although it is unlikely that individuals will exceed the SY ADI, this may occur in some cases, especially for younger people.     

Exposure assessment of food preservatives (sulphites,benzoic and sorbic acid) in Austria

An exposure assessment was performed to estimate the potential intake of preservatives in the Austrian population. Food consumption data of different population groups, such as preschool children aged 3–6 years, female and male adults aged 19–65 years were used for calculation. Levels of the preservatives in food were derived from analyses conducted from January 2007 to August 2010. Dietary intakes of the preservatives were estimated and compared to the respective acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). In the average-intake scenario, assuming that consumers randomly consume food products that do or do not contain food additives, estimated dietary intakes of all studied preservatives are well below the ADI for all population groups. Sulphite exposure accounted for 34%, 84% and 89% of the ADI in preschool children, females and males, respectively. The mean estimated daily intake of benzoic acid was 32% (preschool children), 31% (males) and 36% (females) of the ADI. Sorbic acid intakes correspond to 7% of the ADI in preschool children and 6% of the ADI in adults. In the high-intake scenario assuming that consumers always consume food products that contain additives and considering a kind of brand loyalty of consumers, the ADI is exceeded for sulphites among adults (119 and 124%, respectively). Major contributors to the total intake of sulphites were wine and dried fruits for adults. Mean estimated dietary intakes of benzoic acid exceeded the ADI in all population groups, 135% in preschool children, 124% in females and 118% of the ADI in males, respectively. Dietary intakes of sorbic acid are well below the ADI, accounting for a maximum of 30% of the ADI in preschool children. The highest contributors to benzoic and sorbic acid exposure were fish and fish products mainly caused by high consumption data of this large food group, including also mayonnaise-containing fish salads. Other important sources of sorbic acid were bread, buns and toast bread and fruit and vegetable juices.     

Quantitative risk assessment on the dietary exposure of Finnish children and adults to nitrite

Nitrite intake from the consumption of cured meat and tap water was estimated for Finnish children of 1, 3 and 6 years as well as Finnish adults of 25–74 years. Nitrite content in the foods was measured by capillary electrophoresis, and was then used together with individual food consumption data from the FINDIET 2007 and DIPP studies in a stochastic exposure assessment by a Monte Carlo Risk Assessment (MCRA) program. Nitrite intake from additive sources and tap water was assessed, and more than every 10th child between the ages 3 and 6 years was estimated to have a nitrite intake exceeding the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of nitrite. The high exposure levels were caused by frequent consumption of large portions of sausages, up to 350 g day^–1 or 750 g in 3 days, among the children. Median nitrite intake from cured meat was 0.016, 0.040, 0.033 and 0.005 mg kg^–1 body weight day^–1 for children of 1, 3 and 6 years and adults, respectively. Bayesian estimation was employed to determine safe consumption levels of sausages and cold cuts for children, and these results gave rise to new national food consumption advice.     

Exposure assessment of the Belgian population to pesticide residues through fruit and vegetable consumption

Exposure of the Belgian consumer to pesticide residues from the consumption of fruit and vegetables was determined based on data collected in the Belgian food consumption survey performed by the Scientific Institute for Public Health and data from the Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain 2005 monitoring programme. A first screening of pesticide residue exposure was performed by a deterministic approach. For most pesticide residues studied, the exposure was 100 times lower than the acceptable daily intake (ADI). However, for a high consumer (97.5th percentile of consumption) the intake could reach 23% of the ADI for imazalil, 15% for chlorpropham, 14% for the dithiocarbamates, 10% for dimethoate and lambda-cyhalothrin, and 9% for chlorpyriphos. Nevertheless, probabilistic exposure assessment performed on these pesticides in a second phase of the study indicated that, except for chlorpropham, the probability to exceed the ADI is much lower than 0.1%.     

Dietary intake of non-nutritive sweeteners in type 1 diabetes mellitus children

The aims of the current cross-sectional study were (1) to assess the intake of aspartame, cyclamate, acesulfame-k, neohesperidine dihydrochalcone, sucralose, saccharin, steviol glycosides and neotame among children with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1D); (2) to compare the obtained intakes with the respective acceptable daily intake (ADI) values; and (3) to conduct a scenario analysis to obtain practical guidelines for a safe consumption of non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) among children with T1D. T1D patients of the Paediatrics Department of the University Hospitals Leuven were invited to complete a food frequency questionnaire designed to assess NNS intake using a tier 2 and tier 3 exposure assessment approach. A scenario analysis was conducted by reducing the P95 consumption of the most contributing food categories in order to reach a total sweetener intake lower than or equal to the ADI. Estimated total intakes higher than ADIs were only found for the P95 consumers only of acesulfame-k, cyclamate and steviol glycosides (tier 2 and tier 3 approach). Scenario analysis created dietary guidelines for each age category for diet soda, bread spreads and dairy drinks. There is little chance for T1D children to exceed the ADI of the different NNS, however diabetes educators and dieticians need to pay attention regarding the use of NNS.     

Exposure assessment of the Belgian population to pesticide residues through fruit and vegetable consumption

Exposure of the Belgian consumer to pesticide residues from the consumption of fruit and vegetables was determined based on data collected in the Belgian food consumption survey performed by the Scientific Institute for Public Health and data from the Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain 2005 monitoring programme. A first screening of pesticide residue exposure was performed by a deterministic approach. For most pesticide residues studied, the exposure was 100 times lower than the acceptable daily intake (ADI). However, for a high consumer (97.5th percentile of consumption) the intake could reach 23% of the ADI for imazalil, 15% for chlorpropham, 14% for the dithiocarbamates, 10% for dimethoate and lambda-cyhalothrin, and 9% for chlorpyriphos. Nevertheless, probabilistic exposure assessment performed on these pesticides in a second phase of the study indicated that, except for chlorpropham, the probability to exceed the ADI is much lower than 0.1%.     

Exposure assessment of food preservatives (sulphites, benzoic and sorbic acid) in Austria

An exposure assessment was performed to estimate the potential intake of preservatives in the Austrian population. Food consumption data of different population groups, such as preschool children aged 3-6 years, female and male adults aged 19-65 years were used for calculation. Levels of the preservatives in food were derived from analyses conducted from January 2007 to August 2010. Dietary intakes of the preservatives were estimated and compared to the respective acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). In the average-intake scenario, assuming that consumers randomly consume food products that do or do not contain food additives, estimated dietary intakes of all studied preservatives are well below the ADI for all population groups. Sulphite exposure accounted for 34%, 84% and 89% of the ADI in preschool children, females and males, respectively. The mean estimated daily intake of benzoic acid was 32% (preschool children), 31% (males) and 36% (females) of the ADI. Sorbic acid intakes correspond to 7% of the ADI in preschool children and 6% of the ADI in adults. In the high-intake scenario assuming that consumers always consume food products that contain additives and considering a kind of brand loyalty of consumers, the ADI is exceeded for sulphites among adults (119 and 124%, respectively). Major contributors to the total intake of sulphites were wine and dried fruits for adults. Mean estimated dietary intakes of benzoic acid exceeded the ADI in all population groups, 135% in preschool children, 124% in females and 118% of the ADI in males, respectively. Dietary intakes of sorbic acid are well below the ADI, accounting for a maximum of 30% of the ADI in preschool children. The highest contributors to benzoic and sorbic acid exposure were fish and fish products mainly caused by high consumption data of this large food group, including also mayonnaise-containing fish salads. Other important sources of sorbic acid were bread, buns and toast bread and fruit and vegetable juices.     

Average daily nitrate and nitrite intake in the Belgian population older than 15 years

The aim of this study was to assess the dietary intake of nitrate and nitrite in Belgium. The nitrate content of processed vegetables, cheeses and meat products was analysed. These data were completed by data from non-targeted official control and from the literature. In addition, the nitrite content of meat products was measured. Concentration data for nitrate and nitrite were linked to food consumption data of the Belgian Food Consumption Survey. This study included 3245 respondents, aged 15 years and older. Food intakes were estimated by a repeated 24-h recall using EPIC-SOFT. Only respondents with two completed 24-h recalls (n=3083) were included in the analysis. For the intake assessment, average concentration data and individual consumption data were combined. Usual intake of nitrate/nitrite was calculated using the Nusser method. The mean usual daily intake of nitrate was 1.38 mg kg(-1) bodyweight (bw) day(-1) and the usual daily intake at the 97.5 percentile was 2.76 mg kg(-1) bw day(-1). Exposure of the Belgian population to nitrate at a mean intake corresponded to 38% of the ADI (while 76% at the 97.5 percentile). For the average consumer, half of the intake was derived from vegetables (especially lettuce) and 20% from water and water-based drinks. The average daily intake of nitrate and nitrite from cheese and meat products was low (0.2% and 6% of the ADI at average intake, respectively). Scenario analyses with a higher consumption of vegetables or a higher nitrate concentration in tap water showed a significant higher intake of nitrate. Whether this is beneficial or harmful must be further assessed.     

Estimate of intake of benzoic acid in the Belgian adult population

An exposure assessment was performed to estimate average daily benzoic acid intake for Belgian adults. Food consumption data were retrieved from the national food-consumption survey. As a first step, individual food-consumption data were multiplied with the maximum permitted use levels for benzoic acid per food group (Tier 2). As a second step, a label survey to identify the foods where benzoic acid is effectively used as an additive and a literature review of the possible occurrence of benzoic acid as a natural substance were performed. With this information, a refined list of foods was drafted for the quantification of benzoic acid, which was performed by a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method, optimized and validated for this purpose. Individual food-consumption data were then multiplied with the actual average concentrations of benzoic acid per food group (Tier 3). Usual intakes were calculated using the Nusser method. The mean benzoic acid intake was 1.58 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 (Tier 2) and 1.25 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 (Tier 3). In Tier 2, men exceeded the acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 5 mg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 at the 99th percentile. The greatest contributors to the benzoic acid intake were soft drinks. Benzoic acid as a natural substance represents only a small percentage of the total intake. The results show that actual benzoic acid intake is very likely to be below the ADI. However, there is a need to collect national food-consumption data for children as they might be more vulnerable to an excessive intake.