Multiplex Real‐Time PCR Method for Detection and Quantification of Mycotoxigenic Fungi Belonging to Three Different Genera

Abstract: Cereal crop plants are colonized by many fungal species such as Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium verrucosum, which produce ochratoxins, and Fusarium graminearum, which produces trichothecene mycotoxins. A multiplex real‐time PCR method using TaqMan probes was developed to simultaneously detect and quantify these mycotoxigenic Fusarium, Penicillium and Aspergillus species in cereal grains. Primers and probes used in this method were designed targeting the trichothecene synthase (Tri5) gene in trichothecene‐producing Fusarium, rRNA gene in Penicillium verrucosum, and polyketide synthase gene (Pks) in Aspergillus ochraceus. The method was highly specific in detecting fungal species containing these genes and was sensitive, detecting up to 3 pg of genomic DNA. These PCR products were detectable over five orders of magnitude (3 pg to 30 ng of genomic DNA). The method was validated by evaluating sixteen barley culture samples for the presence of deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA) producing fungi. Among the barley culture samples tested, 9 were positive for Fusarium spp, 5 tested positive for Penicillium spp, and 2 tested positive for Aspergillus spp. Results were confirmed by traditional microbiological methods. These results indicate that DON‐ and OTA‐producing fungi can be detected and quantified in a single reaction tube using this multiplex real‐time PCR method. Practical Application: This method would be helpful in detecting and quantifying the mycotoxin producing fungi such as Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillium in cereal grains and cereal‐based foods.     

Phytopathogenic organisms and mycotoxigenic fungi: Why do we control one and neglect the other? A biological control perspective in Malaysia

In this review, we present the current information on development and applications of biological control against phytopathogenic organisms as well as mycotoxigenic fungi in Malaysia as part of the integrated pest management (IPM) programs in a collective effort to achieve food security. Although the biological control of phytopathogenic organisms of economically important crops is well established and widely practiced in Malaysia with considerable success, the same cannot be said for mycotoxigenic fungi. This is surprising because the year round hot and humid Malaysian tropical climate is very conducive for the colonization of mycotoxigenic fungi and the potential contamination with mycotoxins. This suggests that less focus has been made on the control of mycotoxigenic species in the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium in Malaysia, despite the food security and health implications of exposure to the mycotoxins produced by these species. At present, there is limited research in Malaysia related to biological control of the key mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins, Fusarium‐related mycotoxins, and ochratoxin A, in key food and feed chains. The expected threats of climate change, its impacts on both plant physiology and the proliferation of mycotoxigenic fungi, and the contamination of food and feed commodities with mycotoxins, including the discovery of masked mycotoxins, will pose significant new global challenges that will impact on mycotoxin management strategies in food and feed crops worldwide. Future research, especially in Malaysia, should urgently focus on these challenges to develop IPM strategies that include biological control for minimizing mycotoxins in economically important food and feed chains for the benefit of ensuring food safety and food security under climate change scenarios.     

Mycobiota and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in Capsicum powder

This study aimed to: (1) determine the mycobiota of Capsicum powder samples, paying a special attention to the mycotoxigenic moulds; (2) evaluate the contamination levels of aflatoxins (AF), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), T2 and HT2 toxins in those samples. Thirty-two samples were obtained through the methods of sampling established by the European Union legislation. Aspergillus and Eurotium were the most frequently found genera. Aspergillus section Nigri had the higher relative frequency in the samples, A. niger aggregate being the most representative group of this section. Other potentially mycotoxigenic Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium species were found, but in a lower frequency.Co-occurrence of mycotoxins was confirmed in the 32 Capsicum powder samples. All samples were contaminated with AF and OTA, 27% with ZEA (36% of chilli and 18% of paprika samples), 9% with DON (18% of chilli and 6% of paprika samples), 6% with T2 (18% of chilli samples) and none of the samples contained HT2.Although in the present study the most common genera found (Aspergillus and Eurotium) belong to storage moulds, some field fungi such as Fusarium spp. were also found, and their toxins were sometimes detected. This fact supports the hypothesis that mycotoxin contamination of Capsicum products may occur both in the field and/or during storage.     

Molecular biodiversity of mycotoxigenic fungi that threaten food safety

Fungal biodiversity is one of the most important contributors to the occurrence and severity of mycotoxin contamination of crop plants. Phenotypic and metabolic plasticity has enabled mycotoxigenic fungi to colonize a broad range of agriculturally important crops and to adapt to a range of environmental conditions. New mycotoxin-commodity combinations provide evidence for the ability of fungi to adapt to changing conditions and the emergence of genotypes that confer enhanced aggressiveness toward plants and/or altered mycotoxin production profiles. Perhaps the most important contributor to qualitative differences in mycotoxin production among fungi is variation in mycotoxin biosynthetic genes. Molecular genetic and biochemical analyses of toxigenic fungi have elucidated specific differences in biosynthetic genes that are responsible for intra- and inter-specific differences in mycotoxin production. For Aspergillus and Fusarium, the mycotoxigenic genera of greatest concern, variation in biosynthetic genes responsible for production of individual families of mycotoxins appears to be the result of evolutionary adaptation. Examples of such variation have been reported for: a) aflatoxin biosynthetic genes in Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus; b) trichothecene biosynthetic genes within and among Fusarium species; and c) fumonisin biosynthetic genes in Aspergillus and Fusarium species. Understanding the variation in these biosynthetic genes and the basis for variation in mycotoxin production is important for accurate assessment of the risks that fungi pose to food safety and for prevention of mycotoxin contamination of crops in the field and in storage.     

Identification and quantification of fungi and mycotoxins from Pu-erh tea

Pu-erh tea originates from the province of Yunnan in south-western China. As this tea is produced by so called Aspergillus post-fermentation the question arises which molds and mycotoxins may be found in this tea. In total 36 samples of Pu-erh tea were investigated for their content of filamentous fungi and the mycotoxins aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂, fumonisins B₁, B₂, and B₃, and ochratoxin A. Fungi were isolated from all samples in a concentration of 1.0 × 10¹ to 2.6 × 10⁶ colony forming units (cfu)/g tea, all together 19 fungal genera and 31 species were identified. The most prevalent species were Aspergillus acidus and Aspergillus fumigatus, followed by Zygomycetes and Penicillium species. Aflatoxins and fumonisins were not found in the samples investigated, ochratoxin A was detected in 4 of 36 teas (11.1%).     

Fungal diversity in cow, goat and ewe milk

Knowledge of fungal diversity in the environment is poor compared with bacterial biodiversity. In this study, we applied the denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (D-HPLC) technique, combined with the amplification of the ITS1 region from fungal rDNA, for the rapid identification of major fungal species in 9 raw milk samples from cow, ewe and goat, collected at different periods of the year. A total of 27 fungal species were identified. Yeast species belonged to Candida, Cryptococcus, Debaryomyces, Geotrichum, Kluyveromyces, Malassezia, Pichia, Rhodotorula and Trichosporon genera; and mold species belonged to Aspergillus, Chrysosporium, Cladosporium, Engyodontium, Fusarium, Penicillium and Torrubiella genera. Cow milk samples harbored the highest fungal diversity with a maximum of 15 species in a single sample, whereas a maximum of 4 and 6 different species were recovered in goat and ewe milk respectively. Commonly encountered genera in cow and goat milk were Geotrichum candidum, Kluyveromyces marxianus and Candida spp. (C. catenulata and C. inconspicua); whereas Candida parapsilosis was frequently found in ewe milk samples. Most of detected species were previously described in literature data. A few species were uncultured fungi and others (Torrubiella and Malassezia) were described for the first time in milk.     

A survey of pre-harvest ear rot diseases of maize and associated mycotoxins in south and central Zambia

Maize ear rots reduce grain yield and quality with implication on food security and health. Some of the pathogenic fungi produce mycotoxins in maize grain posing a health risk to humans and livestock. Unfortunately, the levels of ear rot and mycotoxin infection in grain produced by subsistence farmers in sub-Saharan countries are not known. A survey was thus conducted to determine the prevalence of the ear rot problem and levels of mycotoxins in maize grain. A total of 114 farmsteads were randomly sampled from 11 districts in Lusaka and southern provinces in Zambia during 2006. Ten randomly picked cobs were examined per farmstead and the ear rot disease incidence and severity were estimated on site. This was followed by the standard seed health testing procedures for fungal isolation in the laboratory. Results indicated that the dominant ear rots were caused by Fusarium and Stenocarpella. Incidence of Fusarium verticillioides ranged from 2 to 21%, whereas that of Stenocarpella maydis reached 37% on ear rot diseased maize grain. In addition, 2-7% F. verticillioides, and 3-18% Aspergillusflavus, respectively, were recovered from seemingly healthy maize grain. The mean rank of fungal species, from highest to lowest, was F. verticillioides, S. maydis, A.flavus, Fusarium graminearum, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium spp., Botrydiplodia spp., and Cladosporium spp. The direct competitive ELISA-test indicated higher levels of fumonisins than aflatoxins in pre-harvest maize grain samples. The concentration of fumonisins from six districts, and aflatoxin from two districts, was 10-fold higher than 2 ppm and far higher than 2 ppb maximum daily intake recommended by the FAO/WHO. The study therefore suggested that subsistence farmers and consumers in this part of Zambia, and maybe also in similar environments in sub-Saharan Africa, might be exposed to dangerous levels of mycotoxins due to the high levels of ear rot infections in maize grain.     

Fungitoxic activity of Indian borage (Plectranthus amboinicus) volatiles

Indian borage (Plectranthus amboinicus) was investigated for antifungal activity through agar well diffusion assay. Indian borage oil (IBO) was found to be effective against various fungi tested, as it inhibited the radial growth of mycelia and exhibited broad fungitoxic properties against Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus CFR 221, Aspergillus oryzae, Candida versatilis, Fusarium sp. GF-1019, Penicillium sp., and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The effective concentration of IBO on the growth of A. ochraceus in yeast extract sucrose medium was determined. IBO completely inhibited ochratoxin (OTA) production by the toxigenic strain A. ochraceus at 500 ppm. Also, the application of IBO at 100 mg/g in food samples resulted in inhibition of the growth of A. ochraceus in food systems such as groundnut, maize and poultry feed and no detectable amount of OTA was found at a high moisture level of 30%, even after seven days. IBO has the potential for use as a botanical fungitoxicant against fungal attack in stored food commodities.     

Toxigenic molds in Tunisian and Egyptian sorghum for human consumption

The objective of this study was to characterize the mycoflora of sorghum grains commercialized in the Tunisian retail market and to identify aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEA) producing species. Sixty four samples of sorghum (37 samples of Tunisian sorghum and 27 samples of Egyptian sorghum) were analyzed. Dilution plating (CFU, colony forming units) was used for fungal enumeration. The isolation of mycobiota was carried out by plating of grains on PDA and malachite green medium. Aspergillus section Flavi and section Nigri and Fusarium isolates were sub-cultured in CYA to test their ability to produce AFs, OTA and ZEA, respectively. The selected Aspergillus section Flavi and section Nigri, Penicillium and Fusarium isolates were subjected to specific PCR assays using published species-specific primers. The results revealed the dominance of Fusarium (95.3%), followed by Aspergillus (87.2%) and Alternaria (81.2%) species. The fungal counts ranged from 100 to 1.3·10⁴ CFU/g for Tunisian sorghum and from 100 to 5.7·10³ CFU/g for Egyptian sorghum. Among Aspergillus section Flavi isolates identified by molecular biology, Aspergillus flavus was the most dominant (90.1%) while Aspergillus parasiticus represent 9.9% only. About Aspergillus section Nigri, results showed the dominance of Aspergillus niger aggregate species, including Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus tubingensis and other species. Among Fusarium species, Fusarium incarnatum was the most dominant in both Tunisian and Egyptian sorghum. Penicillium citrinum was the dominant Penicillium species in the studied samples. More than 890 isolates belonging to the genus Aspergillus and Fusarium were tested in order to test their capacity to produce AFs, OTA and ZEA. The percentage of mycotoxin producing isolates in Aspergillus section Flavi, A. section Nigri, and Fusarium was 30.0%, 4.6% and 11.1%, respectively.     

Effect of antioxidants and competing mycoflora on Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum populations and fumonisin production on maize grain

This study was carried out to determine the temporal effect of the antioxidants butylated hydroxyanisol (BHA) and propyl paraben (PP) at doses of 500 and 1000 μg/g on the growth of Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum inoculated on natural maize grain in the presence of the competing mycoflora and fumonisin production at 0.98 and 0.95 water activity (a_w) over a 28-day storage period. The reduction in the log colony forming units (CFU) of Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium populations was 10-100 fold depending on dose of BHA or PP, a_w and time. However, the populations of all three groups were higher at 0.98 a_w than 0.95 a_w. BHA at 500 μg/g and 0.95 a_w reduced the fumonisin content by 82% after 7-14 days incubation, but at the end of the experimental period the reduction was only 32%. A higher reduction in the level of fumonisin produced (77%) was achieved with BHA at 1000 μg/g after 28 days. PP at 500 and 1000 μg/g decreased fumonisin production throughout the incubation period in the drier treatment, but at 0.98 a_w control of toxin production was only achieved after 7-14 days. The reduction in the fumonisin levels could be due to the combined effect of antioxidants, and the competing mycoflora, mainly Aspergillus and Penicillium species.     

Application of Lactobacillus amylovorus as an antifungal adjunct to extend the shelf-life of Cheddar cheese

Lactobacillus amylovorus DSM 19280 is an antifungal strain that is inhibitory to a range of fungi including Penicillium expansum, Penicillium roqueforti, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus and Fusarium culmorum. In this study, the strain was used as an adjunct culture in a Cheddar cheese model system. During the ripening period, P. expansum spores were applied to the cheese surface to mimic fungal contamination. The presence of the antifungal L. amylovorus adjunct resulted in a four-day delay in appearance of Penicillium growth on the cheese in comparison to the adjunct-free control. When cheeses were exposed to natural airborne fungi, the presence of the adjunct resulted in a six-day delay in the appearance of mycelia on the cheese surface. Significantly, its presence had no detectable negative impact on cheese quality. The results indicate that the strain could have an application for extending the shelf-life of cheeses which are prone to fungal spoilage.     

Occurrence of storage fungi,especially aflatoxin-forming Aspergillus flavus, in soil,greenstuff and prepared hay

An investigation of the fungal flora in soil and greenstuff from a hayfield was carried out in order to show whether the occurrence of storage fungi, especially A. flavus, was sufficiently high to cause heavy infection of hay. Samples of the hay were field-dried to 63, 76 and 80% dry matter and stored in 150-kg containers in the barn. Three tons of the hay was field-dried to 60 and 70% dry matter and hayloft-dried. Field-dried and hayloft-dried hay were examined after 4 and $\text{4}\text{1}\text{2}$ months respectively. For comparison, hayrack-dried hay of an excellent quality of another origin was included and examined after 6 months of storage in a barn. Field-dried hay was heavily infected with Aspergillus and Penicillium, and in one case with Rhizopus. Hayloft-dried hay which was judged to be of good quality contained Aspergillus and Penicillium, but to much lesser extent. Hayloft-drying from 60% dry matter gave the best product. The hayrack-dried hay contained no A. flavus, only small amounts of Penicillium, and showed good agreement with the greenstuff fungal population. The greenstuff on the experimental field contained few A. flavus, with low aflatoxin-forming capability. From both field-dried and hayloft-dried hay, A. flavus with variable aflatoxin-forming capacity was frequently isolated.     

Contamination with storage fungi of human food from Cameroon

In a mycological study, a total of 95 human food samples were investigated to evaluate the incidence of fungal contamination in Cameroon by conventional identification method and partly confirmed by DNA sequencing. The isolated fungal spp. were further studied to determine their toxigenic potentials. The investigation revealed the predominance of Aspergillus and Penicillium with 96% of samples contaminated with at least one species of these fungi, whereas the incidence of co-contamination of samples was 85%. Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus (Flavi section) were the most predominant species contaminating mainly maize and peanuts. In addition, P. crustosum and P. polonicum were the most common contaminants belonging to the genus Penicillium. On the other hand, A. ochraceus (Circumdati section) registered a low incidence rate of 5%, including other members of the Aspergillus group. Other members of the genera Rhizopus and Alternaria spp. were also registered in the study. A majority of fungal strains of A. ochraceus, A. parasiticus, P. crustosum and P. polonicum isolated were toxigenic, producing the mycotoxins tested for, while none was detected in cultures of A. fumigatus. The high incidence rate of fungi contamination coupled with their potentials in producing mycotoxins gives a strong indication that the samples tested may likely be contaminated with various mycotoxins. There is need for further study to assess the incidence of mycotoxins contamination in similar food samples.     

Fungi and mycotoxins in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L) on Nigerian markets

ABSTRACT

In this study, 81 samples of two cowpea varieties (brown: 54; white: 27) collected from various markets in southwestern Nigeria were examined for fungal and mycotoxin contamination. Moulds belonging to Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium were recovered from 99% of the samples. In both cowpea varieties, Aspergillus (52–53%) dominated Fusarium (29–30%) and Penicillium (17–20%). The interactive effect of cowpea variety and sampled location was significant (p = .013) on the occurrence of Fusarium species. Aflatoxins were detected in one brown and two white cowpea samples at concentrations reaching 209 and 84 µg/kg, respectively. Additionally, beauvericin was found in two samples of each cowpea variety, albeit at low concentrations. Cowpea presents as an alternative vegetable protein source to groundnuts in household nutrition with respect to mycotoxin contamination. Simple techniques to prevent mycotoxins in dry cowpeas are discussed.     

Recent developments and applications of hyperspectral imaging for rapid detection of mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food products

Mycotoxins are the foremost naturally occurring contaminants of food products such as corn, peanuts, tree nuts, and wheat. As the secondary metabolites, mycotoxins are mainly synthesized by many species of the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium, and are considered highly toxic and carcinogenic to humans and animals. Most mycotoxins are detected and quantified by analytical chemistry-based methods. While mycotoxigenic fungi are usually identified and quantified by biological methods. However, these methods are time-consuming, laborious, costly, and inconsistent because of the variability of the grain-sampling process. It is desirable to develop rapid, non-destructive and efficient methods that objectively measure and evaluate mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food. In recent years, some spectroscopy-based technologies such as hyperspectral imaging (HSI), Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy have been extensively investigated for their potential use as tools for the detection, classification, and sorting of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungal contaminants in food. HSI integrates both spatial and spectral information for every pixel in an image, making it suitable for rapid detection of large quantities of samples and more heterogeneous samples and for in-line sorting in the food industry. In order to track the latest research developments in HSI, this paper gives a brief overview of the theories and fundamentals behind the technology and discusses its applications in the field of rapid detection and sorting of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi in food products. Additionally, advantages and disadvantages of HSI are compared, and its potential use in commercial applications is reported.     

Specific antigen-based and emerging detection technologies of mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites produced by certain types of filamentous fungi or molds, such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria spp. Mycotoxins are natural contaminants of agricultural commodities, and their prevalence may increase due to global warming. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, approximately 25% of the world's food crops are annually contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed pose a high risk to both human and animal health. For instance, they possess carcinogenic, immunosuppressive, hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, and neurotoxic effects. Hence, various approaches have been used to assess and control mycotoxin contamination. Significant challenges still exist because of the complex heterogeneous nature of food and feed composition. The potential of antigen-based approaches, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, flow injection immunoassay, chemiluminescence immunoassay, lateral flow immunoassay, and flow-through immunoassay, would contribute to our understanding about mycotoxins' rapid identification, their isolation, and the basic principles of the detection technologies. Additionally, we address other emerging technologies of potential application in the detection of mycotoxins. The data included in this review focus on basic principles and results of the detection technologies and would be useful as benchmark information for future research. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry     

Filamentous Fungi and Mycotoxins in Cheese: A Review

Important fungi growing on cheese include Penicillium, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Geotrichum, Mucor, and Trichoderma. For some cheeses, such as Camembert, Roquefort, molds are intentionally added. However, some contaminating or technological fungal species have the potential to produce undesirable metabolites such as mycotoxins. The most hazardous mycotoxins found in cheese, ochratoxin A and aflatoxin M1, are produced by unwanted fungal species either via direct cheese contamination or indirect milk contamination (animal feed contamination), respectively. To date, no human food poisoning cases have been associated with contaminated cheese consumption. However, although some studies state that cheese is an unfavorable matrix for mycotoxin production; these metabolites are actually detected in cheeses at various concentrations. In this context, questions can be raised concerning mycotoxin production in cheese, the biotic and abiotic factors influencing their production, mycotoxin relative toxicity as well as the methods used for detection and quantification. This review emphasizes future challenges that need to be addressed by the scientific community, fungal culture manufacturers, and artisanal and industrial cheese producers.     

Volatile fungal metabolites and their relation to the spoilage of agricultural commodities

Abstract

Spoilage of agricultural commodities, mainly grains, due to fungal deterioration is a significant source of their loss. Fungi invading stored commodities influence their quality causing decrease in germination, dry matter loss, heating, and off‐odor formation. They can also produce mycotoxins ‐ metabolites harmful to animals and humans. Volatile metabolites produced by fungi can be characteristic markers of fungal presence. This paper reviews proposed methods for fungal contamination assessment based on volatile metabolites, together with literature on volatile metabolites produced by fungi belonging mainly to three genera: Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium being the most important in grains and other agricultural commodities spoilage.     

Molecular Detection of Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Foods: The Case for Using PCR-DGGE

Among the toxin-producing microbes, those that produce mycotoxins are especially problematic due to their broad distribution in the environments and in foods. Several species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium are sources of potent mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, patulin, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisins. It is, therefore, vital that mycotoxigenic fungi contaminants in food are rapidly and accurately identified for ensuring the safety of consumers. Most of the current methods are based on PCR using gene-specific or species-specific primers. However, contaminating microbes often compose a complex community and PCR-DGGE may provide a better approach than traditional single-gene and/or single-species based methods. It provides “fingerprints” for each microbial flora and has been widely used to analyze environmental and food-associated microbial communities. This review shows the advantages and disadvantages of different molecular methods for the detection of mycotoxigenic fungi including PCR-DGGE as a potent and applicable method that could overcome the difficulties associated with other methods.     

Mycoflora and natural occurrence of aflatoxin,cyclopiazonic acid,fumonisin and ochratoxin A in dried figs

Mycoflora, the mycotoxigenic properties of moulds, and natural contamination with mycotoxins such as aflatoxins (AFs), cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were investigated in dried figs. Dry fig samples were collected from orchards during the drying stage in the Aegean Region of Turkey. Fungal isolates were identified using morphological, chemical as well as molecular methods. Mycotoxigenic characteristics of moulds were assessed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Mycotoxins except CPA (by TLC) were determined by HPLC. All the fig samples were contaminated with moulds and 94.7% contained one or more mycotoxigenic species. The most prevalent moulds present in dried figs belong to the Aspergillus section Nigri members, being 93.9% positive for the samples, followed by Fusarium spp., Aspergillus section Flavi and Penicillium spp. On the other hand, Fusarium spp. had the highest count and the number of fumonisin producing Fusarium was also high. A total of 48% of 115 dried fig samples contained OTA (range?=?0.1–15.3?ng?g^?1), 74.7% of the samples had FB₁ (range?=?0.05–3.65?mg?kg^?1), 10.0% of the samples had aflatoxin (range?=?0.1–763.2?ng?g^?1) and 24.3% of the samples were tentatively identified as being contaminated with CPA (range?=?25–187?ng?g^?1). Dried fig samples were contaminated with one (33.0%), two (47.0%), three (5.2%) and four mycotoxins (3.5%). A total of 11.3% of dried fig samples were not contaminated with any of the four mycotoxins. To the best of our knowledge, CPA and fumonisin have been found for the first time in dried figs.