不同巴氏杀菌处理对绵羊乳热加工特性的影响

目的探究绵羊液态乳的热加工特性。方法以牛乳为对照,分别通过低温长时杀菌((65±2)℃/30 min)、高温短时杀菌(85±2)℃/15 s)和超巴氏杀菌((121±2)℃/5 s)对绵羊乳进行杀菌处理,分析3种巴氏杀菌方式对绵羊乳pH值、黏度、蛋白沉淀量、酪蛋白粒径、zeta电位的影响,评价其热稳定性。结果相比于未处理组,3种巴氏杀菌处理均会显著增加绵羊乳pH值,超巴氏杀菌处理会引起绵羊乳黏度及蛋白沉淀量显著增大(P0.05);在高温短时和超巴氏杀菌处理下,绵羊乳酪蛋白粒径显著增加(P0.05),分别达到185.33 nm和242.70 nm。不同巴氏杀菌绵羊乳间Zeta电位无显著性差异;在同样处理条件下,牛乳黏度、蛋白沉淀量及酪蛋白粒径变化程度均小于绵羊乳。结论绵羊乳热加工特性较牛乳脆弱,加工温度易引起品质劣变,低温长时杀菌方式对绵羊乳的理化特性影响最小。     

不同热加工工艺对巴氏杀菌乳中乳清蛋白的影响

以牛乳乳清蛋白为研究对象，探究不同热加工工艺（72 ℃/15 s、75 ℃/15 s、80 ℃/15 s、85 ℃/15 s）对巴氏杀菌乳乳清蛋白中3 种活性蛋白（α-乳白蛋白、β-乳球蛋白和乳铁蛋白）的影响，以及测定并分析杀菌温度对各样品菌落总数和嗜冷菌的影响。结果表明：随着热加工强度的提升，牛乳中的菌落总数随之减少，当杀菌温度在80 ℃以上时牛乳中的菌落总数小于10 CFU/mL；当杀菌温度在72 ℃以上时样品中的嗜冷菌数均小于10 CFU/mL；72 ℃/15 s 和75 ℃/15 s对α-乳白蛋白、β-乳球蛋白和乳铁蛋白影响较小，当杀菌温度达到80 ℃以上时，巴氏杀菌乳中的α-乳白蛋白、β-乳球蛋白和乳铁蛋白含量显著下降（P＜0.05）。综上，热加工的时间和温度与乳清蛋白的关系密切，72～75 ℃/15 s 的热加工工艺能更好地保留乳清蛋白中的3 种活性蛋白。     

不同热处理方式对牛奶乳清蛋白的影响

目的：比较不同热处理方式对牛奶中乳清活性蛋白的影响。方法：以奶场牛乳、巴氏杀菌乳、超高温瞬时灭菌(UHT)乳和蒸汽侵入式直接杀菌(INF)乳4种不同热处理方式的牛奶作为研究对象，观察4种牛奶活性蛋白含量及热处理后牛奶中美拉德反应产物含量等的变化情况；采用SEM、FTIR、荧光光谱分析仪和Malvern纳米粒度仪分析微观结构。结果：4种热处理牛奶中，奶场牛乳的乳清蛋白含量最高，INF杀菌乳与巴氏杀菌乳中乳清蛋白含量和美拉德反应产物含量相当；UHT灭菌乳的粒径及其乳清蛋白极性环境均显著增加；4种牛奶乳清蛋白二级结构中无规则卷曲逐渐增加，乳清蛋白结构从有序向无序转化。结论：蒸汽侵入式直接杀菌对乳清活性蛋白的损伤程度小于超高温瞬时灭菌，与巴氏杀菌相当，且此方法处理的牛乳保存期高于巴氏杀菌乳。     

常见热杀菌方式对关中羊乳品质的影响

采用5种常用热杀菌方式处理关中羊乳,即低温长时巴氏杀菌(65℃/30 min)、高温短时巴氏杀菌(72℃/15 s)、超巴氏杀菌(95℃/5 min)、高温高压灭菌(121℃/20 min)和超高温瞬时灭菌(137℃/7 s),在测定蛋白沉淀率、酒精稳定性、pH、红度值、粘度和脂肪球变化基础上,结合内源荧光光谱和聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳(SDS-PAGE)分析,探究热杀菌处理对关中羊乳品质的影响。结果表明,高温高压灭菌羊乳蛋白沉淀率最高、酒精稳定性最差、pH明显下降、红度值明显增大,但5种杀菌方式对粘度没有显著影响(p0.05);羊乳脂肪球经巴氏杀菌和超巴氏杀菌后,表观直径略微增大,而高温高压灭菌和超高温瞬时灭菌,尤其是高温高压灭菌则导致其明显变小;荧光光谱表明,高温高压灭菌羊乳蛋白结构改变最大,内源荧光强度剧烈升高;电泳显示,巴氏杀菌(65℃/30 min和72℃/15 s)对羊乳酪蛋白和乳清蛋白影响较小,超巴氏杀菌(95℃/5 min)乳清蛋白开始变性、聚集或部分降解,高温高压灭菌和超高温瞬时灭菌,尤其是高温高压灭菌则使乳清蛋白明显降解甚至消失,酪蛋白出现聚集和解聚。结果表明,高温高压灭菌和超高温瞬时灭菌,尤其是高温高压灭菌对关中羊乳品质影响较大,超巴氏杀菌影响次之,而巴氏杀菌则对其影响较小。     

母乳、牛乳与主要小品种乳蛋白质组成及乳清蛋白二级结构比较

目的 对比母乳、牛乳、山羊乳、绵羊乳、驼乳和驴乳的蛋白质组成及乳清蛋白二级结构,厘清主要加工乳种与母乳的蛋白质差异。方法 通过十二烷基硫酸钠-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳（sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, SDS-PAGE）和傅里叶变换红外光谱法（Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, FTIR）对比各乳种的蛋白质组成和乳清蛋白二级结构。结果 绵羊乳中蛋白质、乳糖、脂肪含量均显著高于母乳、牛乳、山羊乳、驼乳和驴乳（P<0.05）,母乳中蛋白质、乳糖、矿物质与驴乳各对应指标均无显著性差异（P>0.05）;酪蛋白﹕乳清蛋白（C:W）是衡量动物蛋白质量的指标,检测结果为母乳C:W为38.58﹕61.42,牛乳C:W为81.43﹕18.57,山羊乳C:W为61.14﹕38.86,绵羊乳C:W为68.42﹕31.58,驼乳C:W为56.16﹕43.84,驴乳C:W为8.91﹕91.09;母乳与驼乳均含有较高的乳铁蛋白与血清白蛋白,且几乎不含β-乳球蛋白;驼乳与母乳乳清蛋白的α?螺旋结构占比较高。结论 母乳与主要加工乳种蛋白质组成与乳清蛋白二级结构不尽相同,该研究为各种乳源高值化利用和纯度鉴别提供了参考依据。     

超高压杀菌处理对牛乳感官和理化特性的影响

以原乳为参照,研究了超高压杀菌处理对牛乳感官和理化特性的影响,并且与巴氏杀菌乳和UHT杀菌乳进行了比较。结果表明,超高压杀菌处理虽然降低了牛乳的白度和浊度,改变了牛乳的感官特性,但是增加了牛乳中游离态钙的含量,降低了乳清蛋白的变性程度,最大限度的保留了牛乳的营养价值。而巴氏杀菌和UHT杀菌处理增加了牛乳的白度和浊度,同样改变了牛乳的感官特性,但是降低了牛乳中游离态钙的含量,使乳清蛋白的变性程度增加,导致牛乳的营养价值降低。     

热处理对牛乳蛋白还原性的影响

借鉴AOAC的蛋白-还原物质（PRS）测定法，对不同受热处理的牛乳以及酪蛋白、乳清的还原性进行了检测研究。通过比较、分析不同热处理牛乳PRS，得到了区分巴氏乳与其它热处理牛乳PRS，同时得出乳清蛋白与酪蛋白之间的热反应性是影响牛乳蛋白还原性的主要原因，为进一步研究乳清蛋白的热变性以及乳清蛋白与酪蛋白之间的热反应奠定了基础。     

不同杀菌方式对牛乳中热敏性成分的影响研究

分别采用管式杀菌、微滤膜杀菌及微滤膜杀菌与巴氏杀菌相结合3种杀菌方式处理牛乳,对其热敏性成分的变化进行研究。测定结果表明:从杀菌效果考虑,向牛乳中加入乳清蛋白和维生素(包括水溶性维生素和脂溶性维生素),3种杀菌方式均能达到较高的杀菌率微滤膜+巴氏杀菌结合的处理方式的杀菌率低于微滤膜除菌及管式杀菌。从营养物质的损失率考虑,管式杀菌处理对乳清蛋白的损失率与其它两种方式相比,影响显著,且营养物质的损失率随着管式杀菌温度的升高而增大。相对于乳清蛋白中的乳铁蛋白和IgG成分,3种杀菌方式对α-乳白蛋白、β-乳球蛋白的损失率影响较小。向牛乳添加的4种类型的水溶性维生素相比,3种杀菌方式对维生素B1的损失率影响最小。但高温(142℃)处理的管式杀菌方式对4种水溶性维生素的损失率影响均显著。3种杀菌方式对脂溶性维生素的损失率的影响高于对水溶性维生素的影响,尤其对维生素E的损失率的影响较显著。     

超巴氏杀菌对牛乳酪蛋白微观结构及凝聚性质的影响

以未经过热处理以及两种常用巴氏杀菌(65℃30 min、72℃15 s)处理的牛乳为对照,探究超巴氏杀菌(121℃5 s)处理对牛乳中酪蛋白微观结构及凝聚性质的影响。粒径分析结果表明,超巴氏杀菌后酪蛋白粒径明显增加;透射电子显微镜和扫描电子显微镜的分析结果表明,超巴氏杀菌能够破坏酪蛋白胶束结构,产生大规模的交联和凝聚,但是凝聚作用能够使酪蛋白胶束呈现出更均一的状态;差示扫描量热法的分析结果表明,超巴氏杀菌处理的样品,其酪蛋白胶束的变性温度略高于未经过热处理的对照组,72℃15 s处理后的酪蛋白与其他3组相比热稳定性提高,其变性温度为99℃。     

不同热处理液态牛乳产品中主要活性蛋白质量浓度差异研究

为了建立RP-HPLC方法快速准确测定不同热处理方式的市售液态牛乳中主要活性蛋白包括α-乳白蛋白（α-La）和β-乳球蛋白（β-Lg）的质量浓度,建立了测定活性乳蛋白所使用的RP-HPLC法,该法具有良好的稳定性（RSD<8%）和较高的回收率（>95%）。测定结果表明,与原料乳相比,经过高温处理（常温存放）的液态乳中的活性α-La和β-Lg显著偏低（<0.16 g/L）;而经巴氏杀菌后低温存放（2～6℃）的液态乳样品中活性乳蛋白可得到很好地保持,部分灭菌后低温存放的样品中活性蛋白损失较大。本研究旨为优化液态乳热处理工艺和规范乳企业对于液态乳的工业生产提供借鉴,为消费者对液态乳制品的选择提供指导。     

Effect of leaving milk trucks empty and idle for 6 h between raw milk loads

The US Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) allows milk tanker trucks to be used repeatedly for 24 h before mandatory clean-in-place cleaning, but no specifications are given for the length of time a tanker can be empty between loads. We defined a worst-case hauling scenario as a hauling vessel left empty and dirty (idle) for extended periods between loads, especially in warm weather. Initial studies were conducted using 5-gallon milk cans (pilot-scale) as a proof-of-concept and to demonstrate that extended idle time intervals could contribute to compromised raw milk quality. Based on pilot-scale results, a commercial hauling study was conducted through partnership with a Pacific Northwest dairy co-op to verify that extended idle times of 6 h between loads have minimal influence on the microbiological populations and enzyme activity in subsequent loads of milk. Milk cans were used to haul raw milk (load 1), emptied, incubated at 30°C for 3, 6, 10, and 20 h, and refilled with commercially pasteurized whole milk (load 2) to measure cross-contamination. For the commercial-scale study, a single tanker was filled with milk from a farm known to have poorer quality milk (farm A, load 1), emptied, and refilled immediately (0 h) or after a delay (6 h) with milk from a farm known to have superior quality milk (farm B, load 2). In both experiments, milk samples were obtained from each farm's bulk tank and from the milk can or tanker before unloading. Each sample was microbiologically assessed for standard plate count (SPC), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and coliform counts. Selected isolates were assessed for lipolytic and proteolytic activity using spirit blue agar and skim milk agar, respectively. The pilot-scale experiment effectively demonstrated that extended periods of idle (>3 h) of soiled hauling vessels can significantly affect the microbiological quality of raw milk in subsequent loads; however, extended idle times of 6 h or less would not measurably compromise milk quality in subsequent loads in commercial tankers. Current tanker sanitation practices appear to be sufficient for maintaining raw milk SPC, LAB, and coliform levels, which are important measures of milk quality.     

Within-milking variation in milk composition and fatty acid profile of Holstein dairy cows

Changes in milk composition during a milking are well characterized, but variation in milk fatty acid (FA) profile is not well described and may affect the accuracy of in-line milk composition analyzers and could potentially be used for selective segregation of milk. Within-milking samples were collected from 8 multiparous high-producing Holstein cows (54.86 ± 6.8 kg of milk/d; mean ± standard deviation). A milk-sampling device was designed to allow collection of multiple samples during a milking without loss of vacuum or interruption of milk subsampling. Milk was collected during consecutive morning and afternoon milkings (12-h intervals) and was replicated 1 wk later. Each sample represented approximately 20% of the milking and was analyzed for fat, true protein, and lactose concentration and FA profile. Milk fat concentration markedly increased over the course of milk let down (4.4 and 4.2 percentage units at the a.m. and p.m. milking, respectively), whereas milk fat globule size did not change. Milk protein and lactose concentration decreased slightly during milking. Modest changes in milk FA profile were also observed, as milk de novo and 16-C FA concentrations increased approximately 10 and 8%, respectively, whereas the concentration of preformed FA decreased about 7% during the milking. In agreement, mean milk FA chain length and unsaturation modestly decreased during milking (0.59 and 0.014 U, respectively). The observed changes in milk fat concentration during a milking are consistent with previous reports and reflect the dynamic nature of milk fat secretion from the mammary gland. Changes in milk FA profile are not expected to practically affect the accuracy of spectroscopy methods for determination of milk fat concentration. Furthermore, the small variation in FA profile during a milking limits the use of within-milking milk segregation to tailor milk FA profile.     

山羊奶的营养成分研究进展

近年来,羊奶及其产品在市场中占有的比例日益增高,羊奶在营养成分构成上与牛奶有较大不同。此文将羊奶与牛奶、母乳进行对比,对羊奶的蛋白质及氨基酸、非蛋白氮、脂肪及脂肪酸、碳水化合物、维生素、矿物质及微量元素的组成及特性研究进展进行了综述。     

原料奶质量对UHT奶制品的影响及控制

主要论述了原料奶的理化指标及微生物指标对ＵＨＴ奶质量的影响，以及控制方法。     

Effect of incomplete milking on milk production rate and composition with 2 daily milkings

The primary aim of this study was to assess the effects of incomplete milking on milk secretion and milk composition at the quarter level. Twelve cows were enrolled beginning at 5 d in milk and remained on study through 47 d in milk. Half of each contralateral udder was incompletely milked (treatment), detaching the teat cup early to leave approximately 30% of the total milk yield behind. This target milk remaining in the gland was based on weekly calibration milking measurements of quarter total milk yield. Control quarters were milked completely until milk flow had decreased to 0 kg/min based on visual assessment. Harvested milk yield was measured twice daily at each milking, and milk components (fat, protein, lactose, solids nonfat, milk urea nitrogen) and somatic cell count, were measured twice weekly at the quarter level. The experimental unit in this design was the half-udder, and a mixed-model approach was used to assess the main and interactive effects of experiment week and treatment on milk production rate, milk remaining in the gland, and milk composition. The effect of treatment on milk production rate was significant, with the average control half-udder producing 0.97 kg/h and the treatment half-udder 0.73 kg/h. The effect of week on milk production rate and the interaction of week × treatment were also significant. The effect of treatment on milk remaining in the gland was significant, illustrating that an increase in milk remaining in the cisternal compartment had been achieved. We detected a significant decrease in milk lactose percentage in treatment half-udders, and a significant increase in somatic cell count (log₁₀). The increase was relatively small, from a geometric mean of 26,300 cells/mL in control quarters to 48,300 cells/mL in treatment quarters. The decrease in milk production rate in treatment half-udders supports current knowledge about how mammary epithelial cell secretion, proliferation, and apoptosis are modulated by autocrine-paracrine factors.     

Nonbovine milk and its products as sources of probiotics delivery: An overview of its viability,functionality and product quality characteristics

Dairy products are the most predominant food carriers for probiotics, providing adequate therapeutic and functional benefits to the host when sufficient probiotics are maintained. Bovine milk currently dominates the global probiotic food market, but there is an increasing trend of applying nonbovine milk from other dairy animals as probiotic carrier food matrices as described in this review. Nonbovine dairy products can be considered suitable food matrices for probiotic delivery due to their excellent probiotic viability (mostly >log 7 cfu/mL or g) during shelf life, functional properties and product quality characteristics, being considered desirable and novel dairy products.     

Presence of Campylobacter and Arcobacter species in in-line milk filters of farms authorized to produce and sell raw milk and of a water buffalo dairy farm in Italy

The objectives of this study were to investigate the presence of Campylobacter spp. and Arcobacter spp. in dairy herds authorized for the production and sale of raw milk and in a water buffalo dairy farm, and to test the antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates. A total of 196 in-line milk filters were collected from 14 dairy farms (13 bovine and 1 water buffalo) for detection of Campylobacter spp. and Arcobacter spp. by microbiological culture. For each farm investigated, 1 isolate for each Campylobacter and Arcobacter species isolated was tested using the Etest method (AB Biodisk, Solna, Sweden) to evaluate the susceptibility to ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, ampicillin, erythromycin, and gentamicin. A total of 52 isolates were detected in 49 milk filters in 12 farms (85.7%) out of 14 and the isolates were identified as Campylobacter jejuni (6), Campylobacter hyointestinalis ssp. hyointestinalis (8), Campylobacter concisus (1), Campylobacter fetus ssp. fetus (1), Arcobacter butzleri (22), and Arcobacter cryaerophilus (14). The small number of isolates tested for antimicrobial susceptibility precludes any epidemiological consideration but highlights that all Campylobacter isolates were susceptible to macrolides, which are the first-choice drugs for the treatment of campylobacteriosis, and that resistance to fluoroquinolones and tetracycline was detected; for Arcobacter isolates, resistance to ampicillin and chloramphenicol was detected. The sale of raw milk for human consumption by self-service automatic vending machines has been allowed in Italy since 2004 and the presence of C. jejuni in in-line milk filters confirms that raw milk consumption is a significant risk factor for human infection. The high occurrence of emerging Campylobacter spp. and Arcobacter spp. discovered in dairy farms authorized for production and sale of raw milk represents an emerging hazard for human health.     

Invited review: Corrected milk: Reconsideration of common equations and milk energy estimates

Corrected milk equations were developed in attempts to bring milk weights to a standardized basis for comparison by expressing the weight and composition of milk as corrected to the energy content of milk of a specific composition. Expressed as milk weights familiar on farm and in commerce, this approach integrates energy contributions of the dissimilar components to make the mass units more comparable. Such values are applied in evaluating feed efficiency, lactation performance, and global milk production, as functional units for lifecycle assessments, and in translation of research results. Corrected milk equations are derived from equations relating milk gross energy to milk composition. First, a milk energy equation is used to calculate the energy value of the milk composition to correct to (e.g., 0.695 Mcal/kg for milk with 3.5% fat, 3.05% true protein, and 4.85% lactose). That energy value is divided into the energy equation to give the corrected milk equation. Confusion has arisen, as different equations purport to correct to the same milk composition; their differences are based on uses of different energy equations or divisors. Accuracy of corrected milk equations depends on the accuracy of the energy equations used to create them. Energy equations have evolved over time as different milk component analyses have become more available. Inclusion of multiple milk components more accurately predicts milk energy content than does fat content alone. Omission of components from an equation requires the assumption that their content in milk is constant or highly correlated with an included component. Neither of these assumptions is true. Milk energy equations evaluated on a small data set of measured milk values have demonstrated that equations that incorporate protein, fat, and lactose contents multiplied by the gross energy of each component more closely predict milk energy than equations containing fewer components or regression-derived equations. This provides a tentative recommendation for using energy equations that include the 3 main milk components and their gross energy multipliers for predicting milk energy and deriving corrected milk equations. Accuracy of energy equations is affected by the accuracy of gross energy values of individual components and variability of milk composition. Lactose has consistent reported gross energy values. In contrast, gross energy of milk fat and protein vary as their compositional profiles change. Future refinements could assess accuracy of milk fat and protein gross energy and whether that appreciably improves milk energy predictions. Fat gross energy has potential to be calculated using the milk fatty acid profile, although the influence on gross energy may be small. For research, direct reporting of milk energy values, rather than corrected milk, provides the most explicit, least manipulated form of the data. However, provision of corrected milk values in addition to information on components can serve to translate the energy information to a form familiar to and widely used in the field. When reporting corrected milk data, the corrected milk equation, citation for the energy equation used, and composition and energy contents of the corrected milk must be described to make clear what the values represent.     

奶啤的研制

以牛奶、麦芽和酒花为主要原料,通过二次生物发酵研制出具有奶香和啤酒风味的奶啤饮料。通过实验确定奶啤的最佳配方及生产工艺流程并对奶啤的稳定性进行探讨,从而研制出即有啤酒的低酒精度、泡沫丰富和适度的二氧化碳,又具有酸乳饮料的酸甜可口、营养全面的奶啤饮料。     

牛乳重要营养品质特征的研究进展

牛乳营养组成非常丰富,乳蛋白和乳脂肪是表征牛奶营养品质的重要指标,并受诸多因素的影响。本文综述遗传、环境和饲养管理等因素对乳蛋白和乳脂肪组分及含量的影响,以及牛乳蛋白和乳脂肪酸的特征性含量和比值。