非淬硬钢磨削表面硬化层的试验研究

在平面磨床上对非淬硬钢进行了磨削硬化处理,研究了磨削方式和冷却条件对表面硬化层的影响。结果表明:硬化层完全硬化区均由细小的孪晶马氏体和板条马氏体组成,且硬化层的组织形貌及显微硬度无显著变化,但硬化层略粗马氏体相的出现位置有所差异;在磨削用量恒定时,顺磨硬化层的深度以及最大残余压应力均大于逆磨硬化层;在磨削功率恒定时,采用逆磨方式可以获得更深的硬化层;与干磨相比,湿磨硬化层表面残余压应力有所提高,但其硬化层深度减少了约30%。     

磨削用量对40Cr钢磨削淬硬层的影响

以平面磨削淬硬试验为基础，研究了磨削用量对40Cr钢磨削淬硬层组织与性能的影响。结果表明，在磨削淬硬加工中的热、力耦合作用下，磨削用量对磨削淬硬层的马氏体组织形貌及其高硬度区硬度值无显著影响，其高硬度值均在HV630～HV680之间。随着磨削速度的提高、磨削深度的增加或工件进给速度的降低，磨削淬硬层表面残余压应力值相应减小，但淬硬层深度以及应力作用深度相应增加。     

基于磨削加工的表面形变淬火工艺--磨削淬硬

磨削淬硬是利用未淬硬钢零件磨削加工中产生的热—机械复合作用直接对其进行表面形变淬火的新工艺。研究表明 ,该工艺可使淬硬层获得超细化马氏体和压缩残余应力 ,同时可显著改善零件的摩擦磨损和疲劳性能 ,在生产应用中具有显著的经济和社会效益。     

Characterizing the Mechanical Properties of the Hardened Layer Induced by Grinding-Hardening

A grinding-hardening process uses the grinding heat to initiate the phase transformation in a workpiece made of quenchable steel and hence to generate its surface hardening. This paper investigates this phase transformation process and the mechanical properties of such hardened layers with the aid of experiments and the finite element analysis. It was found that the phase transformation followed a diffusionless martensitic kinetics in which the external stresses caused by the mechanical loading of the grinding wheel on the workpiece played an important role. The top hardened layer appeared to be a plastically deformed zone of uniform thickness. A metallurgical examination revealed that this layer contained refined martensitic laths, as compared with the ordinary martensite obtained by a conventional quenching method. The microstructural evolution has led to a hardness increase by 1.4 times the ordinary martensite. In addition, the grinding-hardening can promote compressive residual stresses in the ground surface, about 17% higher than the yield strength of the parent ferrite-pearlite material.     

Influence of material microstructure changes on surface integrity in hard machining of AISI 52100 steel

Residual stresses are a consequence of thermo-mechanical and microstructural phenomena generated during the machining operation. Therefore, for improving product performance in machined hardened steels, material microstructure changes (commonly referred to as white and dark layers) must be taken into account. This paper presents a finite element model for white and dark layers formation in orthogonal machining of hardened AISI 52100 steel. In particular, a hardness-based flow stress and empirical models for describing the white and dark layers formation were developed and implemented in the finite element code. A series of experiments was carried out in order to validate the proposed simulation strategy and to investigate the influence of material microstructure changes on residual stresses. As main results, it was firstly demonstrated by surface topography analysis as both the white and dark layer are the result of microstructural alterations mainly due to rapid heating and quenching. Furthermore, it was found as both the presence of white and dark layers influence the residual stress profile. Particularly, the former significant impacts on the magnitude of maximum residual stress and on the location of the peak compressive residual stress; the latter reduces the compressive area.     

钢和铸铁激光相变硬化层的残余应力研究

对钢和铸铁中激光相变硬化引起的残余应力现象进行了研究。结果表明，激光相变硬化层中的残余压应力是普遍存在的现象。激光能量密度Ｐ／Ｄ_ｂ~ｖ对残余应力的大小有很大影响，且对具有不同原始组织的材料，影响的规律也不同。推导了激光相变硬化层的残余应力公式，并对实验结果进行了分析讨论。     

论渗碳钢中残余压应力的作用

本文研究结果表明,渗碳钢淬火形成的残余压应力对提高疲劳强度、多次冲击抗力、疲劳断裂韧性、宏观疲劳裂纹萌生与扩展寿命,降低疲劳缺口敏感性,和疲劳载荷抑制脆性等均起着主要的作用。表层材料强度或硬度与残余应力的相关性在于高的表层材料强度或硬度能减小残余应力的衰减,有助于发挥残余应力对疲劳性能的有利作用。长期以来对渗碳钢中微观组织和残余压应力作用的含混看法得到了澄清。     

喷丸强化残余应力对疲劳性能和变形控制影响研究进展

作为机械表面强化技术之一,喷丸强化使工件表层发生形变硬化,引入较高的残余压应力,减少了疲劳应力作用下微裂纹的萌生并抑制其扩展,从而显著提高零件的抗疲劳断裂和抗应力腐蚀开裂的能力。基于喷丸残余应力解析计算模型,从余弦函数模型、接触应力模型和球腔膨胀模型三个方面介绍喷丸强化残余应力的产生,进而对喷丸残余应力的仿真预测及影响规律进行论述。为了提高试件疲劳强度而引入的残余压应力会带来影响形位精度的变形,基于此阐述了喷丸残余应力对疲劳性能的影响及其在疲劳过程中的演化,同时论述了喷丸残余应力变形预测及控制的研究现状,最后对喷丸残余应力未来的研究内容与发展方向进行展望。     

Contact endurance of gearing teeth subjected to ion-beam nitriding

Gears treated by intense nitrogen ion flows were calculated for preventing deep contact pitting, allowing for the real distributions of hardness in the depth of the hardened layer and reduced stresses. A method for calculating the contact endurance of gears hardened by ion-beam nitriding was proposed. The results of the calculations and experiments have shown that ion-beam nitriding leads to an increase in the load-carrying capacity of a gear 1.31 times in comparison with that of a gear with gears subjected to traditional nitriding; the wear resistance of the ion-nitrided gears is two times greater than that of hardened and tempered gears.     

SURFACE INTEGRITY CHARACTERIZATION AND PREDICTION IN MACHINING OF HARDENED AND DIFFICULT-TO-MACHINE ALLOYS: A STATE-OF-ART RESEARCH REVIEW AND ANALYSIS

This paper presents a review of the state-of-art research on surface integrity characterization, especially the characteristics of residual stresses produced in machining of hardened steels, titanium and nickel-based superalloys using the geometrically defined tools. The interrelationships among residual stresses, microstructures, and tool-wear have been discussed. Current research on residual stress modeling and simulation using finite element method has been critically assessed. Also, the rationale for developing multi-scale simulation models for predicting residual stresses in machining has been presented. At the end, possible future work has been proposed.     

A quantitative comparison between residual stresses and fatigue properties of surface-ground bearing steel (En 31)

Experimental measurements of the residual stresses in hardened and tempered En 31 steel have been made after grinding under various conditions. Wheel speed, downfeed, wheel hardness, dressing speed and lubricant type have been studied separately. Three combinations of parameters were then selected to represent abusive, conventional and gentle grinding conditions. It is clear that high tensile residual stresses can be generated even under “conventional” conditions mainly owing to the martensitic transformation and its associated volume change. A strong dependence of the endurance limit on the maximum residual stress level is found in reverse-bend fatigue tests.     

A comparative study of residual stress and affected layer in Aermet100 steel grinding with alumina and cBN wheels

Residual stresses induced by finish machining processes have significant effect on fatigue strength of ultra-high strength steel in large structures. In this study, an experimental investigation was carried out to explore the residual stress and affected layer in grinding Aermet100 by using a resin bond white alumina (WA) wheel and cubic boron nitride (cBN) wheel, respectively. The grinding force and temperature were measured, and then the affected layer of residual stress, microhardness, and microstructure by a WA and a cBN wheel was obtained. The comparisons of surface residual stress studies and thermal–mechanical coupling mechanism on the affected layer were discussed in light of the current understanding of this subject. Experimental results show that grinding with cBN wheel can provide compressive residual stress and a smaller affected layer owing to its better thermal conductivity; the coupling effect of wheel speed and grinding depth plays a more significant role on surface residual stress; when grinding with parameters v _w?=?18 m/min, v _s?=?14 m/s, and a _p?=?0.01 mm, compressive residual stress and hardening effect appeared on ground surface, and the depth of residual stress layer is 40~50 μm; the depth of hardened layer is 30~40 μm and the depth of plastic deformation layer is 5~10 μm.     

65Mn钢磨削硬化层组织的研究

采用刚玉砂轮在普通平面磨床上对65Mn钢进行磨削硬化，研究其硬化层组织及变化规律，结果表明：磨削硬化层由完全硬化区和过渡区组成；完全硬化区由细小针状马氏体、残余奥氏体和少量点状碳化物组成，过渡区由马氏体和回火索氏体(珠光体)组成；从表面到里层，组织形貌呈现“细→粗→细”的变化规律；在本研究的磨削工艺条件下，显微组织无明显变化。     

Theoretical Investigation of the Influence of Combined Machining Modes on the Value and Character of Residual Stresses in the Surface Layer of Cylindrical Friction Pairs

In this paper, analysis of influence of residual stresses in the surface layer of cylindrical friction pairs on the operational wear resistance index is carried out. Stresses of the first kind after application of combined machining are investigated. Combined machining is consecutive electromechanical machining and diamond burnishing. A formula for calculation of residual stresses originating in the surface layer after the combined machining is obtained. For computational convenience, a computer program calculating the residual stress parameter is written in Visual studio 2017 C#. The combined machining method creates a potential for improving performance indices due to creation of compressive residual stresses.     

State of the art of Deep Rolling

It is vital to control fatigue life in different industrial sectors, and to improve this, surface treatments are usually used. Some of the most important surface treatments are Shot Peening (SP), Laser Shock Peening (LSP) or Deep Rolling (DR), which are used to improve the surface properties and resistance to cyclic loading of the components. The idea of this article is to focus on Deep Rolling and revise the state of its development at the present time, with a particular emphasis on implementation and changes in materials. A comparison of Deep Rolling versus other surface has been made, and different processes that can improve the effects of Deep Rolling, such as heat treatments, are shown. It can be concluded that the pressure of the tool during the process is the most important control parameter for Deep Rolling and that the residual stresses and strain hardening have the greatest influence in terms of fatigue life. Moreover, selecting the correct values of the other control parameters for DR, depending on the material on which DR is to be done, allows increased compressive residual stresses, a hardened layer near the surface and lower surface roughness, all of which produce an improvement in fatigue life.     

Determination of anisotropy of strengthening and residual stresses in a steel sample cylinder treated with a roller

A mathematical model for determining residual stress fields and plastic deformations in a hardened layer of a sample cylinder after anisotropic strengthening is described. A procedure is set forth and the model is identified on the example of sample cylinders made of 40XH steel after running with a roller. Experimental and calculation results are analyzed.     

The cutting tool stresses in finish turning of hardened steel with mixed ceramic tool

Precision hard machining is an interesting topic in manufacturing die and mold, automobile parts, and scientific research. While the hard machining has benefit advantages such as short cutting cycle time, process flexibility, and low surface roughness, there are several disadvantages such as high tooling cost, need of rigid machine tool, high cutting stresses, and residual stresses. Especially, tool stresses should be understood and dealt with to achieve successful performance of finish hard turning with ceramic cutting tool. So, the influence of cutting parameters on cutting stresses during dry finish turning of hardened (52 HRC) AISI H13 hot work steel with ceramic tool is investigated in this paper. For this aim, a series finish turning tests were performed, and the cutting forces were measured in tests. After literature procedure about finite element model (FEM), FEM is established to predict cutting stresses in finish turning of hardened AISI H13 steel with Ceramic 650 grade insert. As shown, effect of the cutting parameters on cutting tool stresses in finish turning of AISI H13 steel is obtained. The suggested results are helpful for optimizing the cutting parameters and decreasing the tool failure in finish turning applications of hardened steel.     

MODELING OF WHITE AND DARK LAYER FORMATION IN HARD MACHINING OF AISI 52100 BEARING STEEL

In machining of hardened materials, maintaining surface integrity is one of the most critical requirements. Often, the major indicators of surface integrity of machined parts are surface roughness and residual stresses. However, the material microstructure also changes on the surface of machined hardened steels and this must be taken into account for process modeling. Therefore, in order for manufacturers to maximize their gains from utilizing hard finish turning, accurate predictive models for surface integrity are needed, which are capable of predicting both white and dark layer formation as a function of the machining conditions. In this paper, a detailed approach to develop such a finite element (FE) model is presented. In particular, a hardness-based flow stress model was implemented in the FE code and an empirical model was developed for describing the phase transformations that create white and dark layers in AISI 52100 steel. An iterative procedure was utilized for calibrating the proposed empirical model for the microstructural changes associated with white and dark layers in AISI 52100 steel. Finally, the proposed FE model was validated by comparing the predicted results with the experimental evidence found in the published literature.     

Finite element analysis of the effect of sequential cuts and tool–chip friction on residual stresses in a machined layer

A thermo-elastic–viscoplastic model using explicit finite element code Abaqus was developed to investigate the effect of sequential cuts and tool–chip friction on residual stresses in a machined layer. Chip formation, cutting forces and temperature were also examined in the sequential cuts. The affected layer from the first cut slightly changes the chip thickness, cutting forces, residual strain and temperature of the machined layer, but significantly affects the residual stress distribution produced by the second cut. Residual stress is sensitive to friction condition of the tool–chip interface. Simulation results offer an insight into residual stresses induced in sequential cuts. Based on simulation results, characteristics of residual stress distribution can be controlled by optimizing the second cut.     

Studying the stressed state of a pipe wall with nonuniform residual stresses during bending

The change of the stressed state of pipes with a nonuniform distribution of residual stresses during bending in the elastic region of deformation is studied. The increment of stresses during the bending of a pipe is shown to be almost independent of the initial state. During the bending of a pipe in the elastic region, residual stresses are simply summed with stresses induced by an applied external load. The most stable result of estimating the increment of stresses may be obtained by the annular scanning of a pipe and the averaging of the data on the measurements of a signal over conditionally accepted sectors.