Multi-field coupling finite element analysis for determining the influence of temperature field on die service life during precision-forming process of steel synchronizer ring

Failure analysis shows that increased die temperature caused by severe plastic deformation of material and heat conduction between hot billet and cavity significantly affects the distortion of gear cavity in steel synchronizer ring forging process. The forging process of steel synchronizer ring and die temperature distribution under different forging conditions are analyzed through finite element method. Simulation results show that severe plastic deformation occurs in the gear cavity. The improvement of lubrication condition results in decreased die temperature. When the initial billet temperature is high, the die temperature is also high. Increasing forging speed in a certain range facilitates the die temperature decrease. The distribution of die temperature in synthetic forming technology is more reasonable than that of one step forging. The synthetic forming technology is adopted in production to reduce the effects of severe plastic deformation caused by die temperature. The ejection mechanism and control system of the double disc friction press are improved to reduce the contact time between the hot billet and cavity. Experimental results show that synthetic forming technology is reasonable, and that the die service life is prolonged.     

A study on life estimation of hot forging die

In this study, the forging die life was investigated using fatigue life and wear quantity, which are generally considered for estimation of die life. The main aim is development of the equations to adapt finite element analysis to life estimation for a hot forging die. The Archard’s model was used to estimate the wear life of the die and Goodman’s and Gerber’s equations, using the stress-life method, were applied to estimation of the fatigue life. These techniques were applied to die life estimation for the hot forging die of a ball joint socket used in an autovehicle system. Rigid-plastic finite element analysis was first carried out for the forging process of the ball joint socket and then the elastic stress analysis was performed for the die in order to obtain fundamental data for the prediction of fatigue life. The die stress analysis requires the deforming loads of the workpiece to be translated into the contact loading of the die. In this case, the size of finite elements of the die and the workpiece is important for good interpolation of the loading. Therefore, the influence of element sizes on the interpolation results of the contact loading was also investigated. The wear volume of the die was measured using a 3-dimensional scanner of probe type. It was found that the measurement had a good agreement with the results of the finite element analysis for the die life estimation.     

热加工工艺对锻模寿命的影响

分析研究了从冶炼、锻造及热处理等锻模热加工的各工序对锻模使用寿命的影响,并制定了预防锻模早期失效和提高锻模使用寿命的措施。重点阐述了模坯锻造过程中应注意的工艺技巧及方法,提出了针对热锻模具采用不同的热处理工艺和表面强化处理方法。     

Suitability of CAE neural networks and FEM for prediction of wear on die radii in hot forging

Prediction of tool wear in hot die forging along the entire arbor radius by wear models known so far is a very difficult task. On these parts of tools significant changes of contact pressure and sliding lengths occur along the die curvature during the plastic flow of material formed. A new approach presented in the paper combines the use of a conditional average estimator neural network (CAE NN) with the exploitation of results obtained by the finite element method (FEM) and also data from other sources. Consequently new parameters as well as the results of experimental work can be taken into account. In this paper a brief overview of models for prediction of tool (die) wear are discussed. The theoretical background of CAE NN, as well as its application to the modeling of the tool wear phenomenon, is presented. Some results of FEM analysis of the hot forging process that serve as input parameters in the CAE NN model are also briefly discussed. Two relevant practical applications are shown. In the first example, tool wear was modeled at a higher number of strokes (blows), by knowing wear at a lower number of strokes. In the second example, the number of strokes was the output parameter—the number of strokes causing predetermined wear at any point of the tool engraving curvature (arbor radius) was predicted. A comparison between the measured and predicted values of wear demonstrated good agreement that was assessed by a corresponding coefficient of determination.     

Durability improvement method for plastic spur gears

An experimental investigation of power-transmission plastic spur gears was performed by inspecting both the characteristics of wear and durability, and a durability improvement method is proposed that either drills an internal hole or inserts a steel-pin in the internal hole of the gear tooth, and this proposed method was verified. In the case of acetal gears, the amount of wear was observed to increase with the development of plastic deformation, and an increase in tooth stiffness occurred due to the brittle material property of acetal. On the other hand, in the case of nylon gears, the proposed method was shown to reduce the tooth temperature compared to the original gear, thus reducing the amount of wear and prolonging service life. Hence, the proposed method was proven to be practically applicable to plastic gears made from soft polymers that show visco-elastic properties such as nylon.     

Factors affecting die wear

Simple upsetting tests were used to assess the wear of hot forging dies. The influence of forging variables such as die-billet contact time and lubrication is described. A “white” layer is formed at the surface of lubricated dies when die-billet contact times exceed 5 ms. This layer was identified as martensite of increased wear resistance. Lubrication affects the frictional condition at the die-billet interface thus facilitating the relative movement of the billet material over the die surface resulting in the increased wear of flat dies.     

Experimental Study of Wear Behaviour of Hot Forging Tool Steels Under Dry Conditions: 40CrMoV13 Against C35E

The dimensions and quality of forged-steel components are significantly affected by the action of friction and wear. The thermal and mechanical operating conditions of hot forging tools provoke serious degradation, such as oxidative wear, thermal fatigue, plastic damage and mechanical cracking. This slowly causes the tools to lose their original geometry and thus they must be either reformed or discarded [1]. The knowledge and control of this damage is essential and must be taken into consideration, both in die design and in the choice of tool material and the type of surface conditioning. The degradation has direct effects on the lifespan of the tools, and consequently on the cost of the components. This paper deals with the sliding wear behaviour of 40CrMoV13 Steel against C35E in the 700 to 850 °C temperature range under ambient conditions. This steel is used frequently as hot forging die material. This study focuses on the effect of the test temperature and the role of the oxide scales. The purpose of these experiments was to obtain tribological data (friction coefficient, wear rate, etc.), in order to include it in numerical simulations of damage to hot forging tools for the purpose of optimizing the tools' lifespan.     

Influence of cooling condition of tools on central deformation of workpiece and tool wear in cross wedge rolling

In this paper, a thermal–mechanical coupled simulation model for two-roll cross wedge rolling (CWR) was developed to investigate the influence of cooling condition of tools on central deformation of workpiece and tool wear by using three-dimensional rigid-plastic finite element method. Based on the simulation results, the information about central deformation of workpiece and tool wear with and without tool cooling was compared and analyzed. The study results indicate that forging quality and tool life can be improved by means of cooling the tools with cooling water. Subsequently, an industrial example of CWR in blank forming for engine connecting rod was presented to verify the feasibility of study results. In this industrial application, higher forging quality and longer tool life were obtained, which benefits the decrease of production cost. This study provides insights into the mechanisms of central deformation of workpiece and tool wear under different cooling conditions of tools in CWR process as well.     

基于钴基合金覆层的多层金属热锻模原型制备与性能

基于功能梯度材料(FGM)的思想制备多层金属热锻模是提高模具寿命的有效方法。采用焊条电弧堆焊制备了多层金属热锻模的原型试样,试样经焊后热处理后,进行了金相组织分析、显微硬度测试、磨损实验和冲击韧性测试等实验。实验结果表明:钴基合金堆焊层与W6Mo5Cr4V2堆焊层界面冶金结合情况良好;截面显微硬度呈梯度分布,表面钴基合金硬度达到492HV;制备的多层金属试样耐磨性是H13钢耐磨性的2.5倍,冲击韧性处于合理范围。     

Wear analysis of hot forging dies

In hot forging, die wear is the main cause of failure. In this paper, the wear analysis of a closed hot forging die used at the final stage of a component has been realized. The simulation of forging process was carried out by commercially available software based on finite volume method and the depth of wear was evaluated with a constant wear coefficient. By comparing the numerical results with the measurement taken from the worn die, the wear coefficient has been evaluated for different points of the die surface and finally a value of wear coefficient is suggested.     

提高热锻模具寿命的有效途径

提高热锻模具寿命是降低锻件生产成本的重要途径。本文从锻模材料选择、锻模设计、锻模热处理以及模具的使用与维护等方面,分析提出了提高热锻模具寿命的有效途径,对提高锻模寿命和产品质量以及降低生产成本具有指导意义。     

Elastic-viscoplastic finite-element analysis of a forging die

The elastic-viscoplastic constitutive equations of Bodner-Partom have been implemented in a nonlinear finite-element computer program. Using the modified program, a series of computer simulations of a bottom die in a hot-die forging operation has been performed. The results demonstrate that the elastic-viscoplastic finite-element program is particularly suited for high-temperature structural-analysis applications for components which are subjected to complex arbitrary deformation and thermal histories such as those encountered by a forging die or workpiece. In addition, these simulations establish the local stress and strain values at various critical locations, the displacements of the die surface, and the critical loads for potential failure of the forging die.     

国内模具材料发展及其应用

介绍了模具选材的基本原则,并且指出模具的使用寿命主要受材料和热处理工艺的影响,分析了模具的工作条件、结构、设计等因素对模具材料选择的影响,总结了几种常用模具材料的具体选用。综述了冷作模具钢、热作模具钢及塑料模具钢即国内常见的模具钢的发展及应用。冷作模具的失效形式是磨损、脆断、塑性变形、咬合等;塑料模具与冷作模具和热作模具相比,要有较高的硬度、一定的耐热性及耐蚀性;而热作模具钢的工作条件较为恶劣,热作模具钢在工作温度下具有高热强性、较好的综合力学性能、一定的抗氧化性及较高的使用寿命。最后对模具钢的研发进行了展望。     

Phase transformation-based finite element modeling to predict strength and deformation of press-hardened tubular automotive part

In this paper, a new tool design for hot stamping taking advantage of both direct quenching and indirect die quenching is proposed to fabricate the coupled torsion beam axle which is formed from the original tubular-shaped part. This newly proposed hot stamping applies spray of the water before the upper die gets into contact with the tubular part, which significantly enhances the cooling capacity. For other region that cannot be covered by the direct spray, the conventional die quenching method in direct hot stamping process is used. Moreover, for the analysis of the deformation behavior during the proposed hot stamping process, the finite element analysis, which takes the deformation and strengthening induced by the cooling and phase transformation into account, has been carried out. From the analysis, the larger shape change when the cooling time is shorter than 15 s could be explained by the incomplete martensitic phase transformation and phase transformation plastic strain. When the cooling time is short the residual stress after cooling is much higher than those for the longer cooling times.     

汽车钢质同步环精密成形与实验研究

对汽车钢质同步环的成形过程进行了计算机模拟,分析了不同阶段材料的流动情况及模具结构与坯料尺寸对成形质量的影响,同时对同步环模具的失效形式进行分析,指出模具表层温度升高是造成模具失效的主要原因。为提高模具使用寿命与产品成形性能,对成形工艺进行了改进。结果表明:模拟结果与实际生产相符,大大缩短了同步环的开发周期;采用热锻+温整复合成形工艺后,齿形的充填更加饱满,模具受力状况得到了改善,使用寿命得到了一定的提高。     

Design of overlay coated region with hardfacing,transition and damage diminution layers for the reduction of damages of hot forging tools

Hot forging dies are damaged by the mixed failure modes including wear, thermal cracks, impact cracks, corrosion cracks, etc.. In order to extend the service life of the hot forging die, the diminution technology of the mixed failure modes should be developed. The aim of this paper is to design an overlay coated region consisting of a Hardfacing layer (HL), a Transition layer (TL) and a Damage diminution layer (DDL) to reduce damage of hot forging tools. The HL and the DDL are contrived to improve the wear resistance and the ductility of the overlay coated region, respectively. The TL is adopted to prevent thermal fatigue induced by the difference in the thermal expansion coefficients between successive layers. In order to estimate design alternatives of the overlay coated region, the effects of the thickness and the assignment of the DDL on stress-strain distributions in the overlay coated region are investigated via Finite element analyses (FEAs). The influence of the assignment of the DDL on thermal behaviors of the overlay coated region is investigated through thermal fatigue experiments. From the results of the FEAs and the thermal fatigue experiments, an appropriate design of the overlay coated region is determined.     

Microstructure and properties of surfacing layers of dies manufactured by bimetal-gradient-layer surfacing technology before and after service

The purpose of this article is to investigate the microstructure and mechanical properties of surfacing layers (wear layer and transition layer) of a hot forging die manufactured by the bimetal-gradient-layer surfacing method, which is based on ZG29MnMoNi cast steel before and after forged 5761 parts on a 63MN hot die forging press. The finite element model of a die was established. Subsequently, a simulation was conducted to analyze the temperature field of the die and its cycle features under working conditions. Microstructure and mechanical property were measured. Results indicated that the microstructure of the wear layer mainly consists of temper sorbite, ferrite and carbides. The transition layer before and after service is mainly composed of both temper sobrite, lower bainite, and a small amount of temper martensite. The mechanical properties of wear and transition layers declined significantly after service. The tensile strength, yield strength, reduction of area, and elongation of wear layer declined by 41.6, 32.5, 28.3, and 24.5 %, respectively. With those indexes the transition layer decreased by 36.6, 34, 24.4, and 19.8 %, respectively. Microhardness and impact energy of wear and transition layers have showed a decrease of 17, 6 % and 51.2, 32.6 %, respectively. The impact fracture mode of both wear and transition layers is typically intergranular fracture after service. As a conclusion, it was determined that the service process sufficiently influenced the mechanical properties of the surfacing layers.     

Investigating the change in wear behaviour of a tool steel after surface melting and gaseous alloying

In this study it is shown that surface melting in the presence of a reactive gas can be used as a method of changing the tribological properties of a hot forging die steel. A H13 tool steel surface was melted in the presence of a gaseous shield of pure argon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and a mixture of 80% carbon dioxide–20% argon. Microhardness profile measurements and metallographic examination was used to study the changes in wear behaviour after surface modification. The results indicate a significant increase in surface hardness after the melting and gaseous alloying process with the most wear resistant surfaces produced under a shield of CO₂ and CO₂–Ar gases. This was attributed to the formation of a fine dendritic microstructure consisting of chromium–vanadium carbides. The presence of these hard phases in the surface reduce the degree of plastic deformation and wear by adhesive mechanisms.     

A study on precision forging of spur gear forms and spline by the upper bound method

Precision forging is an important manufacturing procedure of spline and spur gear forms. It has advantages of improved strength, good tolerance, saving billet material, dispensing with the cutting, etc. In this paper, a mathematical model using an upper bound method is proposed for forging of spur gear forms and spline to investigate the plastic deformation behavior of billet within the die cavity. The material of solid billet was assumed as rigid–plastic and the shape of the tooth profile was accounted for the mathematical modeling of the kinematically admissible velocity field assumed for the plastic zone. The non-uniform velocity was employed for simulating the inhomogeneous deformation and the effect of barreling during the forging. Using the present model, various effects of forming parameter such as the friction factor, reduction, number of teeth, etc. upon the non-dimensional forging pressure, forging force and barreling of the spur gear forms and spline were analyzed systematically and the results compared with those of other researcher's analytical and experimental work. It is shown that the present modeling of the process improves knowledge of the process design performance for the precision forging of spur gear form and spline.     

Die fatigue life design and assessment via CAE simulation

In die design process, the design and prediction of die fatigue life is a non-trivial issue. Many factors in die life cycle from design, fabrication to service all affect die life. The die life in cold forging processes is basically determined by die fatigue failure. The design and assessment of die fatigue life needs to consider all the affecting factors including die structure and component design, materials selection and properties configuration, die fabrication and service conditions. Currently, there is no efficient approach to providing complete solutions by considering all of these factors. CAE simulation technology, however, presents a promising approach to addressing the issue. In this paper, a simulation-based approach for die life design and assessment is presented. The approach employs both stress-life and strain-life fatigue analysis methods to conduct the die fatigue life design and analysis based on the stress and strain revealed by CAE simulation. As the die stress and strain in forming process vary dynamically, the integrated simulation of forming process and die deformation is conducted in such a way that the dynamic die stress and strain can be identified and determined. To implement this idea, a realization framework is orchestrated and the processes and procedure under the framework are succinctly articulated. The implementation with case studies is finally used to test and verify the validity, robustness, and efficiency of the developed approach. The approach is proven to be able to provide satisfactory solutions for die life design and assessment in the early stage of die design.