High-temperature erosion-oxidation of uncoated and FB-CVD aluminized and aluminized-siliconized 9Cr-1Mo steel under fluidized-bed conditions

Fluidized-bed combustion is one of the methods to generate energy in a clean and efficient way from a variety of fuels. However, conditions in fluidized-bed boilers: high temperature, oxidizing atmosphere and impacts by fluidized sand particles, can cause significant degradation of some boiler components, such as heat exchangers, by a combination of oxidation attack and erosion wear. Protective coatings, deposited mainly by thermal spraying and diffusion techniques, are considered a solution to extend the lifetime of such components. This paper allows evaluation whether diffusion coatings, applied using a fluidized-bed chemical vapour deposition (FB-CVD) technique, could be used to provide protection for 9Cr-1Mo steel against high-temperature erosion-oxidation.In this paper, the results from laboratory studies of the erosion-oxidation behaviour of uncoated, aluminized and aluminized-siliconized 9Cr-1Mo steel, subjected to air, at temperatures of 550-700 °C and impacts by 200 μm silica sand particles, are presented. The tests were carried out in a fluidized-bed rig, using speeds of 7.0-9.2 m s⁻¹ and angles of 30° and 90°. Erosion-oxidation damage was characterized by measurement of the mean thickness changes using a micrometer and examination of worn surfaces by scanning electron microscopy. The results show that the coatings, particularly the aluminized-siliconized coating, protect the 9Cr-1Mo steel for some period of the test under the given conditions, but, once the coatings are penetrated, aluminizing and aluminizing-siliconizing are no longer effective in preventing erosion-oxidation of the substrate. The interactions between erosion and oxidation processes are discussed and explanations for differences in behaviour of uncoated and coated specimens are presented. Finally, the challenges in developing thicker coatings to provide longer term protection of the steel against erosion-oxidation are considered.     

硬质涂层冲击、冲蚀性能的研究进展

工程领域中随处可见的碰撞、振动现象,使冲击和冲蚀已成为众多装备中关键零部件破坏和失效的主要原因之一。表面工程特别是涂层技术的发展和应用有效地改善了这一情况,通过赋予材料表面更好的性能,延长了工件的使用寿命。涂层的冲击磨损和冲蚀磨损不仅与材料有关,还受到角度、温度等服役工况的影响,是一个多因素共同作用的复杂过程。通本文以硬质涂层为对象,介绍了其发展历程,分析并总结了其耐冲击、冲蚀性能的研究现状,并展望了未来研究趋势。     

Cavitation and high-velocity slurry erosion resistance of welded Stellite 6 alloy

The cavitation and slurry erosion resistances of Stellite 6 coatings and 13-4 stainless steel were compared in laboratory. The Cavitation Resistance (CR) was measured according to ASTM G32 standard and the Slurry Erosion Resistance (SER) was tested in a high-velocity erosion tester under several impact angles. The results showed that the coatings improved the CR 15 times when compared to bare stainless steel. The SER of the coatings was also higher for all the impingement angles tested, the highest erosion rate being observed at 45°. The main wear mechanisms were micro-cracking (cavitation tests), and micro-cutting and micro-ploughing (slurry erosion tests).     

Erosion Wear Response of Glass Microsphere Coatings: Parametric Appraisal and Prediction Using Taguchi Method and Neural Computation

This article presents an analysis of the erosion wear response of borosilicate glass microsphere (BGM)-coated metal specimens subjected to reproducible erosive situations. The coatings are deposited on metal substrates by a plasma spraying route using an atmospheric plasma spray setup working on a nontransferred arc mode. The response of these coatings to solid particle erosion for different test parameters is studied. The erosion test schedule is planned as per Taguchi's experimental design and is carried out under controlled laboratory conditions using an air jet–type erosion tester. The analysis of test results reveals that the impact velocity is the most significant among various factors influencing the erosion wear rate of these coatings. A prediction tool based on artificial neural networks (ANNs) is then implemented to predict the triboperformance of such coatings in regard to their erosion rates under different test conditions. ANN is a technique that takes into account the training, testing, and validation protocols using the database generated from experimentation. This technique helps in saving time and resources for a large number of experimental trials and it is seen in this work that it can successfully predict the wear rate of the coatings for test conditions both within and beyond the experimental domain.     

Development of a new type micro slurry‐jet erosion (MSE) tester for evaluation of wear properties of hard thin coatings

Versatile and reliable techniques for evaluation of hard thin coatings are necessary for the development and tribological assessment of new coatings. We have proposed a new type of micro slurry‐jet erosion (MSE) test, i.e. a solid particle impact erosion test for swift evaluation of wear properties of hard thin coatings. We are using a new type of MSE test apparatus (pot type tester) that makes it possible to obtain the wear loss per unit mass of erodent, which in this test was alumina particles with an average size of 1.2 µm. Its performance was evaluated by using a Si wafer plate under various test condition. In addition, the MSE tester was demonstrated by evaluating the wear resistance of TiN on high‐speed steel substrate. The new MSE test generates highly reproducible results and is very sensitive to the quality of the coatings. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A contribution to the surface analysis and characterisation of HVOF coatings for petrochemical application

The appropriate selection of bulk materials and coatings of valve components is an important factor for the economic success of oil and gas production activities in the petrochemical field. Materials and coatings are important because particle erosion and surface wear are associated to corrosion by hydrogen sulphide during oil and gas flow. The wear of high pressure valves of gas system will lead to pollution, safety problems and cost increases. The most common solution of these problems is the deposition of hard materials as tungsten carbide or chromium carbide by thermal spray. These coatings are deposited by high velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) thermal spray process to obtain a very high hardness with excellent cohesion and adhesion. Tungsten carbide cobalt–chromium based coating, chromium carbide nickel–chromium coating as well as Inconel 625 have been adopted in the specifications of petrochemical companies and their behaviour and wear, erosion and corrosion properties are reported in the literature.

This paper addresses the experimental study, surface analysis and functional characterisation of HVOF coatings innovative for the specific application such as NiAl and composite material WC/intermetallic compounds containing Ni, Cr, Co and Mo. These coatings have been systematically submitted to corrosion and functional tests based on the determination of the behaviour of the coatings in H₂S and CO₂ atmosphere and to wear and erosion according to standard ASTM G75-95 (slurry test); material loss and surface damage have been determined; the coatings have been completely characterised from the point of view of the structure (morphology, porosity, hardness, wear) and of the surface properties by means of a prototype 3-dimensional (3-D) stylus micro-geometrical surface analysis system; their corrosion and functional behaviour have been compared with the behaviour of the above mentioned coatings.

The slurry test allows a clear discrimination among the performances of analysed coatings. Namely, WC/Mo compound, because of its carbide content, shows fairly good behaviour in an erosive environment and higher erosion resistance than Inconel 625 and NiAl; all the tested coatings show similar behaviour in a corrosive environment.     

Characteristics of manganese phosphate coatings for wear- resistance applications

Three different manganese phosphate solutions have been used to produce phosphate coatings on steel. The process was monitored by means of potential measurements and the coatings were characterized by coating weight and porosity measurements and electron microscopy. Their structural features were related to wear test performance in dry and lubricated conditions. The best wear resistance was found for fine-grained porous coatings (produced in a mixed nitric acid/nickel nitrate accelerated solution) in lubricated conditions —thicker coatings should be used when the wear surfaces conform poorly.     

Triboperformance Analysis of Coatings of LD Slag Premixed with TiO2 Using Experimental Design and ANN

This article reports on the analysis of triboperformance in regard to the erosion wear of a new class of coatings by an integrated implementation of Taguchi's experimental design and artificial neural networks (ANNs). Plasma-sprayed coatings of LD slag premixed with TiO₂ in different weight proportions are deposited on metal substrates at various input power levels of the plasma torch. Solid particle erosion trials, as per ASTM G 76 test standards, are conducted on the coating samples following a well-planned experimental schedule based on Taguchi's design of experiments. An air jet–type erosion test rig capable of creating reproducible erosive wear situations is used. Significant process parameters predominantly influencing the rate of erosion are identified. The study reveals that the impact velocity is the most significant among various factors influencing the wear rate of these coatings. A prediction model based on an ANN is proposed to predict the erosion performance of these coatings under a wide range of erosive wear conditions. This model is based on the database obtained from the experiments and involves training, testing, and prediction protocols. This work shows that an ANN model helps to save time and resources that are required for a large number of experimental trials and successfully predicts the erosion wear rate of the coatings both within and beyond the experimental domain.     

锅炉水冷壁管的复合涂层防护技术研究

针对燃煤电站锅炉水冷壁管吹灰冲蚀严重,导致泄漏、爆管等而被迫停炉检修的情况,根据水冷壁管的形状、工况条件和使用环境状况,对电弧喷涂工艺以及对Ni基高Cr丝材所制成的涂层的微观组织结构、硬度、涂层结合性能以及耐冲蚀磨损性能等进行了深入的研究,在此基础上,确定了以电弧喷涂NiAl丝材作为结合底层,高Cr材料作为功能层,并辅以高温封孔的复合涂层制备技术,以提高锅炉运行的可靠性和经济性。     

Eddy-current testing of the hardness,wear resistance,and thickness of coatings prepared by gas-powder laser cladding

The possibility of applying the eddy-current method to estimate the composition, hardness, abrasive wear-resistance, and wear resistance under sliding friction conditions of chromium-nickel and chromium-nickel-cobalt coatings prepared by gas-powder laser cladding was studied. Variations in the readings of an eddy-current instrument along the depth of the surface cladding layer and with changing thickness of coatings, which are due to the distribution of structural components in coatings and large differences between the electromagnetic characteristics of cladding layers and the ferromagnetic steel base of specimens, were determined. A technique of the eddy-current testing of the thickness of Cr-Ni and Cr-Ni-Co cladding coatings on a ferromagnetic steel base is proposed. It allows one to estimate the quality of the strengthening laser cladding and subsequent grinding, monitor the state of coatings under service conditions, and forecast the residual life of cladding elements subjected to intense wear.     

Tribological behaviour and wear mechanism of MoS2–Cr coatings sliding against various counterbody

MoS₂–Cr coatings with different Cr contents have been deposited on high speed steel substrates by closed field unbalanced magnetron (CFUBM) sputtering. The tribological properties of the coatings have been tested against different counterbodies under dry conditions using an oscillating friction and wear tester. The coating microstructures, mechanical properties and wear resistance vary according to the Cr metal-content. MoS₂ tribological properties are improved with a Cr metal dopant in the MoS₂ matrix. The optimum Cr content varies with different counterbodies. Showing especially good tribological properties were MoS₂–Cr8% coating sliding against either AISI 1045 steel or AA 6061 aluminum alloy, and MoS₂–Cr5% coating sliding against bronze. Enhanced tribological behavior included low wear depth on coating, low wear width on counterbody, low friction coefficients and long durability.     

Comparison in erosion behavior of iron-base coatings sprayed by three different arc-spray processes

The elevated temperature erosion behavior of three iron-base coatings sprayed by high velocity continuous combustion (HVCC) process was determined in a laboratory elevated temperature erosion tester and compared with the behavior of coatings sprayed using combustion arc-spray and standard arc-spray processes. Test conditions attempted to simulate erosion conditions found at the heat exchanger tubes in the coal-fired boilers. Two bed ashes A (highly erosive) and B (medium erosive bed ash) retrieved from two operating boilers were used as erodent materials. In addition, some other properties, such as microhardness, porosity, and oxidation rate, of coatings were also measured and compared.

Erosion test results indicated that the three iron-base coatings sprayed with HVCC process demonstrated higher erosion resistance than the ones sprayed with the other two arc-spray processes, when eroded by bed ash B. When eroded by high erosive ash (bed ash A), the three arc-sprayed iron-base coatings exhibited similar levels of erosion resistance, the ones sprayed with HVCC process being slightly better than those sprayed with the other two processes. The difference of erosion behavior between sprayed coatings produced by different processes closely correlated with their microstructure and the characteristics of ash materials rather than the microhardness of coatings. The erosion mechanism of coatings was also discussed and compared.     

Erosive wear of hardfaced Fe–Cr–C alloys at elevated temperature

Many engineering components are subjected to erosive wear at elevated temperature. As erosive wear at elevated temperature is governed by the synergistic effect of erosive wear and oxidation, it is possible to modify surfaces of the components in order to achieve improved performances. In view of the above, two different types of hardfacing alloys of Fe–Cr–C were designed incorporating Nb, Mo and B to ensure improved performances at elevated temperature. In order to achieve the above objective, mild steel was hardfaced with these alloys under optimised gas metal arc welding (GMAW) condition. The microstructures of the hardfaced coating was characterised with the help of optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The mechanical properties of these coatings were obtained by means of micro indenter. Erosive wear of these coatings was evaluated for four different temperatures, for two different impact angles and at one impact velocity. The morphologies and the transverse sections of the worn surfaces are examined with SEM. The erosive wear of these coatings were compared with conventional M2 tool steel. Results indicate that erosion rate of these coatings increases with increase of test temperature and impact angles. Among various coatings, Fe–Cr–C coating containing higher amount of Nb, Mo and B exhibits best erosion resistance particularly at elevated temperature.     

A comparative study of tribological behavior of microarc oxidation and hard-anodized coatings

Microarc oxidation (MAO), a novel coating technique capable of depositing dense, hard ceramic composite coatings on aluminium and its alloys, has the potential to replace conventional hazardous anodizing techniques. However, the emergence of such a scenario depends strongly on the properties and performance of MAO coatings in comparison to hard-anodized coatings. In order to facilitate such a comparative investigation, a 6061 T6 aluminium alloy was employed as the substrate and the coatings were deposited through microarc oxidation (MAO) and hard anodizing techniques. The tribological performance of the coatings was evaluated using dry-sand abrasive wheel tests at different normal loads and solid-particle erosion wear tests at different particle velocities and impact angles by employing silica as erodent. The hard-anodized coatings reduced the abrasive wear rate of 6061 Al alloy by a factor of 2, while the MAO coatings reduced the wear rate by a factor of 12-30. Under erosion conditions, the overall wear rate of MAO coatings is identical to that of bare alloy, whereas the hard-anodized coatings exhibit 10 times higher erosion rate.     

The effect of phosphating on the friction and wear properties of grey cast iron

The friction and wear resistance of two commercial manganese phosphate coatings have been evaluated. Grey cast iron wear pins were treated by the two processes and were tested by sliding against a steel disc, under both lubricated and dry sliding wear conditions.Phosphating increases the sliding distance to scuffing as well as the scuffing load, whilst marginally reducing the coefficient of friction. No advantage was found in phosphating dry sliding surfaces.Phosphating reduces the likelihood of adhesive wear in marginal or poorly lubricated sliding couples. The choice of phosphate coating is primarily dependent on the surface finish of the sliding counterface; thin coatings are suitable if the counterface is smooth but thicker coatings are superior against rougher surfaces.     

Abrasive wear behavior of high speed steel and hard metal coated with TiAlN and TiCN

The wear behavior of M2 high speed HSS steel and WC hard metal coated with TiAlN and TiCN were investigated and compared, using the pin on disk standard test with different loads. The coating PVD process has been done by two different suppliers, using an industrial equipment unit with optimized conditions. The coated layers were measured and characterized. The load, sliding distance and velocity of 0.5 m/s were kept constant during the abrasion test in order to control these variables. The counterface disks used were electric steel sheets from three different suppliers. The lost volume and temperature at the pin end have been measured during the wear test. Comparisons of tribological performance for the coated HSS and hard metal were done, using a plot of lost volume versus sliding distance for substrates and coatings. The pin worn surfaces were observed using a scanning electron microscope. A significant increase in the wear resistance of M2 steel and WC hard metal when coated with TiAlN and TiCN was observed. Quality of these coatings depended upon the supplier. Excessive porosity has diminished the TiAlN counting wear resistance from one supplier. However, in general the performance of TiAlN is superior to TiCN. The pin wear rate depended on the disk microstructure.     

TiVN涂层的耐磨性与切削性能的关联研究

通过多弧离子镀沉积技术制备了TiN和TiVN涂层,对比了两种涂层在不同工况下的摩擦磨损性能和切削性能,并指出影响刀具涂层服役性能的主要因素。结果表明,V元素掺杂有效提高了TiN涂层的硬度和结合力、减小了TiN涂层的摩擦因数和低温下的磨损率,但V容易氧化的特性导致500 ℃及以上温度TiVN涂层产生较高的磨损率。切削测试表明,在麻花钻的主切削刃和横刃区域两种涂层发生明显的剥落,而在后刀面涂层未发生明显剥落,TiVN涂层较高的膜基结合强度和耐磨性能使得它对刀具的防护效果更佳;刀具涂层的服役性能与其耐磨性能和膜基结合强度有关,刀具的主切削刃和横刃区域对涂层的耐磨性能和膜基结合强度有着苛刻的要求,且切削刃尖端温度较高,对涂层的高温耐磨性能和膜基结合强度要求也高。     

Comparative Study of Thermally Sprayed Coatings Under Different Types of Wear Conditions for Hard Chromium Replacement

The tribological properties of part surfaces, namely their wear resistance and friction properties, are decisive in many cases for their proper function. To improve surface properties, it is possible to create hard, wear-resistant coatings by thermal spray technologies. With these versatile coating preparation technologies, part lifetime, reliability, and safety can be improved. In this study, the tribological properties of the HVOF-sprayed coatings WC–17%Co, WC–10%Co4%Cr, WC–15% NiMoCrFeCo, Cr₃C₂–25%NiCr, (Ti,Mo)(C,N)–37%NiCo, NiCrSiB, and AISI 316L and the plasma-sprayed Cr₂O₃ coating were compared with the properties of electrolytic hard chrome and surface-hardened steel. Four different wear behavior tests were performed; the abrasive wear performance of the coatings was assessed using a dry sand/rubber wheel test according to ASTM G-65 and a wet slurry abrasion test according to ASTM G-75, the sliding wear behavior was evaluated by pin-on-disk testing according to ASTM G-99, and the erosion wear resistance was measured for three impact angles. In all tests, the HVOF-sprayed hardmetal coatings exhibited superior properties and can be recommended as a replacement for traditional surface treatments. Due to its tendency to exhibit brittle cracking, the plasma-sprayed ceramic coating Cr₂O₃ can only be recommended for purely abrasive wear conditions. The tested HVOF-sprayed metallic coatings, NiCrSiB and AISI 316L, did not have sufficient wear resistance compared with that of traditional surface treatment and should not be used under more demanding conditions. Based on the obtained data, the application possibilities and limitations of the reported coatings were determined.     

Study of tribological performance of ECR-CVD diamond-like carbon coatings on steel substrates: Part 1. The effect of processing parameters and operating conditions

Diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings were prepared on AISI 440C steel substrates at room temperature by electron cyclotron resonance chemical vapor deposition (ECR-CVD) process in C₂H₂/Ar plasma. Using the designed Ti/TiN/TiCN/TiC interfacial transition layers, relatively thick DLC coatings (1-2 μm) were successfully prepared on the steel substrates. The friction and wear performance of the DLC coatings was evaluated by ball-on-disk tribometry using a steel counterbody at various normal loads (1-10 N) and sliding speeds (2-15 cm/s). By optimizing the deposition parameters such as negative bias voltage, DLC coatings with hardness up to 30 GPa and friction coefficients lower than 0.15 against the 100Cr6 steel ball could be obtained. The friction coefficient was maintained for 100,000 cycles (∼2.2 km) of dry sliding in ambient environments. In addition, the specific wear rates of the coatings were found to be extremely low (∼10⁻⁸ mm³/Nm); at the same time, the ball wear rates were one order of magnitude lower. The influences of the processing parameters and the sliding conditions were determined, and the frictional behavior of the coatings was discussed. It has been found that higher normal loads or sliding speeds reduced the wear rates of the coatings. Therefore, it is feasible to prepare hard and highly adherent DLC coatings with low friction coefficient and low wear rate on engineering steel substrates by the ECR-CVD process. The excellent tribological performance of DLC coatings enables their industrial applications as wear-resistant solid lubricants on sliding parts.     

The erosive wear behavior of basalt based glass and glass–ceramic coatings

In this study, the effects of impact angle and SiC reinforcement on the erosion wear behavior of basalt base glass and glass–ceramic coatings were investigated. Basalt powders with 0–50% SiC additions were coated on AISI 1040 steel by atmospheric plasma spray coating technique. Controlled heat treatment was applied to amorphous basalt base coatings for glass–ceramic transformation. Erosion tests were realized by using corundum media at the different impact angles and velocities. Wear test results showed that the SiC addition in the basalt based coatings resulted in increase erosive wear resistance of glass and glass–ceramic coatings.