Tribological behaviour of glass fibre bundles reinforced epoxy gradient composites

Abstract

The short fibre bundles separated from the machining waste of a printed circuit board manufacturing plant were used in preparing functionally graded composites using polysulphide modified epoxy resin. Glass fibre bundles were thouroughly mixed with epoxy, which is getting polymerised with time and centrifugal force was applied to achieve graded dispersion of glass fibre bundles. The centrifugation time was varied to obtain different gradient profiles. Optical microstructures confirmed the graded dispersion of glass fibres bundles in the epoxy matrix. Increase in distance towards the centrifugation force direction increases the glass fibre concentration. Gradient characteristics in the composite have been observed in wear and friction measurements, which were conducted using a pin-on-disc machine. Worn surfaces of samples were analysed with the help of SEM. Both sliding (adhesive) and abrasive wear rates of glass fibre reinforced epoxy gradient composites reduced with increasing centrifugation time. Reduction in wear rate in glass fibre epoxy gradient composites has been attributed to the better interface bonding between epoxy coated fibre bundles and the epoxy matrix and hardening property of glass fibre. It has been found that capability to sustain pressure limit increased from 0·59 to 0·79 MPa on centrifuging the sample upto 2 min and reached to 1·19 MPa with increasing the centrifugation time to 30 min.     

Tribological Properties of Organic Functionalized ZrB<Subscript>2</Subscript>–Al<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>3</Subscript>/Epoxy Composites

The tribological behaviors of epoxy composites filled with organic functionalized ZrB₂–Al₂O₃ were environmentally investigated and compared with those with as-received fillers under both dry and oil sliding conditions in this work. The worn surfaces and the transfer films on the counterparts were characterized by scanning electronic microscope (SEM), and the frictional temperature rising was investigated by infrared thermometer. The results demonstrated that the coefficient of friction (CoF), the wear rate, as well as the frictional temperature rise of the epoxy composites were all decreased due to the introduction of ZrB₂–Al₂O₃ fillers. And with the increase in filler content, similar variation tendencies of CoF and wear rate of epoxy composites were observed under the different sliding conditions. Besides, the organic functionalization of ZrB₂–Al₂O₃ fillers, which made the epoxy composites exhibit lower CoF and wear rate than those with as-received fillers, lowered the frictional temperature as well. In comparison, the epoxy composites filled with 5 vol% modified fillers presented better tribological properties, suggesting a stronger interfacial bonding between modified fillers and epoxy matrix. The dominant wear mechanisms of filled composites under dry and oil sliding conditions could be inferred as the combination of adhesive wear and abrasive wear and the fatigue wear, respectively, on the basis of SEM images of worn surfaces.     

Friction and Wear of Epoxy Composites Containing Surface Modified SiC Nanoparticles

The authors of the present paper evaluated the sliding wear behaviors of epoxy and its composites filled with untreated and treated SiC nanoparticles. The experimental results indicate that the nanoparticles pretreated by graft polymerization of polyacrylamide effectively improved the overall performance of the matrix epoxy. In comparison with the untreated SiC nanoparticles, the grafted SiC nanoparticles led to more significant reduction in frictional coefficient and wear rate of epoxy. Even under high contact pressure, the composites with grafted SiC nanoparticles possessed the highest wear resistance. The strong interfacial bonding between the grafted SiC nanoparticles and the matrix should account for the properties enhancement. Accordingly, a feasible way of efficiently applying SiC nanoparticles to the preparation of wear resisting nanocomposites has been developed.     

Investigations on the influence of graphite filler on dry sliding wear and abrasive wear behaviour of carbon fabric reinforced epoxy composites

In this experimental study, the dry sliding wear and two-body abrasive wear behaviour of graphite filled carbon fabric reinforced epoxy composites were investigated. Carbon fabric reinforced epoxy composite was used as a reference material. Sliding wear experiments were conducted using a pin-on-disc wear tester under dry contact condition. Mass loss was determined as a function of sliding velocity for loads of 25, 50, 75, and 100 N at a constant sliding distance of 6000 m. Two-body abrasive wear experiments were performed under multi-pass condition using silicon carbide (SiC) of 150 and 320 grit abrasive papers. The effects of abrading distance and different loads have been studied. Abrasive wear volume and specific wear rate as a function of applied normal load and abrading distance were also determined.The results show that in dry sliding wear situations, for increased load and sliding velocity, higher wear loss was recorded. The excellent wear characteristics were obtained with carbon-epoxy containing graphite as filler. Especially, 10 wt.% of graphite in carbon-epoxy gave a low wear rate. A graphite surface film formed on the counterface was confirmed to be effective in improving the wear characteristics of graphite filled carbon-epoxy composites. In case of two-body abrasive wear, the wear volume increases with increasing load/abrading distance. Experimental results showed the type of counterface (hardened steel disc and SiC paper) material greatly influences the wear behaviour of the composites. Wear mechanisms of the composites were investigated using scanning electron microscopy. Wear of carbon-epoxy composite was found to be mainly due to a microcracking and fiber fracture mechanisms. It was found that the microcracking mechanism had been caused by progressive surface damage. Further, it was also noticed that carbon-epoxy composite wear is reduced to a greater extent by addition of the graphite filler, in which wear was dominated by microplowing/microcutting mechanisms instead of microcracking.     

Friction and sliding wear of UHMWPE modified cotton fibre reinforced polyester composites

Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) modified polyester-cotton composites were developed and studied for friction and sliding wear behaviour at different applied loads and UHMWPE concentrations. Sliding wear tests were conducted by using pin-on-disc apparatus. Composites in the form of the pin were tested against EN-24 steel disc. The specific wear rate of polyester reduced on reinforcement of cotton and on addition of UHMWPE. The coefficient of friction of polyester resin increased on cotton reinforcement and reduced significantly on addition of UHMWPE in cotton polyester composite. The composites exhibited reductions in specific wear rate against the normal load in the specimens those containing 7.41 or higher volume percent of UHMWPE. The significant reduction in wear rate of UHMWPE modified polyester-cotton composite has been discussed with the help of SEM observations of worn surfaces and coefficient of friction. The addition of 14.19 vol.% UHMWPE in polyester resin brought down the value of μ to nearly half to that of polyester resin and 1/3rd of cotton polyester composite.     

Dry sliding wear characteristics of glass–epoxy composite filled with silicon carbide and graphite particles

The dry sliding wear characteristics of a glass–epoxy (G–E) composite, filled with both silicon carbide (SiC_p) and graphite (Gr), were studied using a pin-on-disc test apparatus. The specific wear rate was determined as a function of sliding velocity, applied load and sliding distance. The laminates were fabricated by the hand lay-up technique. The volume percentage of filler materials in the composite was varied, silicon carbide was varied from 5 to 10% whereas graphite was kept constant at 5%. The excellent wear resistance was obtained with glass–epoxy containing fillers. The transfer film formed on the counter surface was confirmed to be effective in improving the wear characteristics of filled G–E composites. The influence of applied load is more on specific wear rate compared to the other two wear parameters. The worn surfaces of composites were examined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to investigate the probable wear mechanisms. It was found that in the early stage of wear, the fillers contribution is significant. The process of transfer film, debris formation and fiber breakage accounts for the wear at much later stages.     

An Analysis and Comparison of the Tribological Behavior of Two Polymers Sliding Against a Polymeric Composite

Two polymers, ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) and polycarbonate, were slid dry against continuous fiber graphite/epoxy composites in multiple-pass friction and wear tests. High and low valves of load, speed, fiber orientation, and virgin surface roughness were used to find their effect on the coefficient of friction and wear rate. Regression equations were developed from the data to help describe the effects of various independent variables. For the total distance slid of 176 m, there was no significant effect of sliding speed on coefficient of friction. The coefficient of friction for UHMWPE was found to depend on surface roughness and fiber orientation. For polycarbonate, the coefficient of friction was very complex, containing a three-factor interaction between normal load, surface roughness, and fiber orientation. The wear rate for UHMWPE was a function of normal load, surface roughness, and a nonlinear term in normal load and surface roughness. The wear rate for polycarbonate was significantly affected by all variables except fiber orientation.     

基于UHMWPE/纳米ZnO复合材料的滑动摩擦磨损机制

用热压成型法制备了超高分子量聚乙烯(UHMWPE)纳/米ZnO复合材料,采用销盘式摩擦磨损试验机考察了载荷和相对滑动线速度对复合材料摩擦学性能的影响;采用扫描电子显微镜观察了复合材料磨损表面形貌。结果表明:在低载荷试验条件下磨损机制为粘着磨损,在高载荷试验条件下磨损机制为粘着磨损和疲劳磨损。而在一定载荷试验条件下,无论相对滑动线速度高或低,复合材料的磨损机制主要表现为粘着磨损,只是在高速情况下粘着磨损程度加大,局部还出现了表面撕裂的痕迹。     

Comparative study of micro- and nano-ZnO reinforced UHMWPE composites under dry sliding wear

This is a comparative study between ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) reinforced with micro-zinc oxide (ZnO) and nano-ZnO under different filler loads. These composites were subjected to dry sliding wear test under abrasive conditions. The micro- and nano-ZnO/UHMWPE composites were prepared by using a hot compression mould. The wear and friction behaviours were monitored using a pin-on-disc (POD) test rig. The pin-shaped samples were slid against 400 grit SiC abrasive papers, which were pasted, on the stainless steel disc under dry sliding conditions. The worn surfaces and transfer film formed were observed under the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Experimental results showed that UHMWPE reinforced with micro- and nano-ZnO would improve the wear behaviour. The average coefficient of friction (COF) for both micro- and nano-ZnO/UHMWPE composites were comparable to pure UHMWPE. The weight loss due to wear for nano-ZnO/UHMWPE composites are lower compared to micro-ZnO/UHMWPE and pure UHMWPE. The optimum filler loading of nano-ZnO/UHMWPE composites is found to be at 10 wt%. The worn surface of ZnO/UHMWPE composites shows the wear mechanisms of abrasive and adhesive wear. Upon reinforcement with micro- and nano-ZnO, the abrasive and adhesive wear of worn surfaces transited from rough to smooth.     

Tribological behaviour of polymeric coatings. Part I. Aramid particle‐reinforced epoxy nanocomposite systems

An epoxy‐based nanocomposite containing a low concentration of nanometric TiO₂ (4 vol. %), graphite powder (7.21 vol. %), and 2–14 vol. % aramid particles was developed as a coating material. The mechanical and tribological performance of the composites was investigated. The epoxy filled only with TiO₂ possessed significantly improved impact strength and flexural properties, whereas the further incorporation of graphite and aramid particles had a deleterious effect on most of the mechanical properties, except the modulus. The tribological behaviour of the composites was tested in sliding and fretting modes. Under sliding conditions, the addition of nanometric TiO₂ alone significantly improved the wear resistance and decreased the coefficient of friction compared to the neat epoxy. The sliding wear and friction behaviour was further enhanced with the incorporation of graphite and aramid particles. Contrary to the sliding wear behaviour, the fretting wear and friction behaviour was worse for the epoxy filled only with TiO₂, but was significantly enhanced by the incorporation of graphite and aramid particles. The optimum aramid particle content for sliding and fretting wear of the epoxy‐based nanocomposite was determined as 10 vol. %.     

Pre-Polishing the Metal Counterface of Metal–UHMWPE Wear Pair with Filler-Filled UHMWPE Composites to Generate Counterface Changes for an Effective Reduction in Pure UHMWPE Wear

Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is well known for high-wear-resistance applications. Its long-chained easy sliding molecules and semi-crystalline structures enable the polymer’s great wear resistance. UHMWPE composites made for higher wear resistance study have been analyzed in this paper. Pure UHMWPE, 1 wt% CNT UHMWPE, 1 wt% PEEK UHMWPE, 1 wt% alumina (nano)–UHMWPE composites were made to be tested against metal disk on pin-on-disk tribometer. The metal disk surface conditions were found to have significant influence on the UHMWPE–polymer wear than the composite itself. This result indicates a simple and industrial applicable method that involves transfer film on the counterface to reduce polymer wear for metal–polymer wear pair applications.     

超高分子量聚乙烯/纳米Al2O3复合材料的磨损表面特征分析

用热压成型法制备了纳米氧化铝填充超高分子量聚乙烯(UHMWPE)复合材料,采用销盘式摩擦磨损试验机考察了纳米粒子对复合材料摩擦磨损性能的影响;采用扫描电子显微镜观察了复合材料磨损表面形貌,并借助X射线能谱仪对试样磨损表面进行了微区分析。结果表明:UHMWPE/nano-A l2O3复合材料中的纳米A l2O3粒子含量不同,其磨损表面的碳元素含量也发生不同程度的变化。填充质量分数为15%的纳米A l2O3能较好地改善UHMWPE/nano-A l2O3复合材料的摩擦磨损性能,其磨损表面出现了明显的贫A l区和富A l区,且富A l区以“岛”的形式分布在贫A l区中。     

Time of exposure to lubricating liquid for predicting wear of UHMWPE in joint prostheses

It is generally agreed that contact pressure and sliding speed are the predominant factors for the prediction of wear of ultrahigh‐molecular‐weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) in joint prostheses. A new parameter for predicting the wear of UHMWPE has been introduced with a wear test in vitro. The parameter is the time of exposure to a lubricating liquid on a bearing surface. A pin‐on‐disc machine was designed such that the exposure time of a Co Cr Mo alloy disc to a lubricating liquid could be varied. The specific wear of UHMWPE was increased by a decrease in the exposure time, even if the contact pressure and the sliding speed were held constant. The parameter is able to account for the contact pressure set in the experiment (2.0–20.0 mPa), and clarifies the conditions under which the specific wear of UHMWPE is found to be high.     

Large-scale friction and wear tests on a hybrid UHMWPE-pad/primer coating combination used as bearing element in an extremely high-loaded ball-joint

The surfaces of a heavily loaded ball-joint were initially covered with a sliding spray and suffer wear. A solution is found by incorporating UHMWPE pads (Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene) with a carbon fibre/epoxy reinforced ring as sliding material into the chairs of the structure, while the steel ball-side is covered with a Zn-phosphate primer coating, protecting against corrosion. The local static and dynamic behaviour of the hybrid UHMWPE pads in contact with steel or Zn-coated counterfaces has been large-scale tested on loading capacity, low friction and wear resistance. For protection of the sliding counterface against wear, a polymer lip covering the carbon ring has been experimentally designed to flow over the carbon ring under high contact pressures, assuming the retained polymer disc under hydrostatic conditions. As such, the soft coating resists extremely high contact pressures (150 MPa) with good adhesion to the steel ball. However the application method should be carefully selected, sprayed coatings are the most favourable for low initial static friction. Calculated bulk and flashtemperatures revealed that the UHMWPE melting temperature is not exceeded, although softening of the coating under high contact pressures may be favourable for a ‘self-repairing’ ability. Pre-sliding creep and intermediate wear paths as manifesting in the ball-joint were simulated, indicating that the maximum design coefficient of friction is not exceeded. Test results are compared to FEM-calculations to verify the practical applicability of the modified sliding system.     

Influence of Fibre Length on the Wear Behaviour of Chopped <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agave americana</Emphasis> Fibre Reinforced Epoxy Composites

An experimental study to determine the wear behaviour of Agave fibre reinforced epoxy composites (AFEC) has been conducted. Epoxy composites reinforced with Agave fibres of length 3, 5 and 7 mm namely were prepared by hand lay up and open mould technique. Wear behaviour of the composite was responsive to varied load, fibre length and sliding velocity. Observations of this experiment exposed that, AFEC3 has a good degree of wear behaviour when sliding against the stainless steel. The worn surfaces and wreckage were observed under scanning electron microscope. Finally, microscopic observation indicated that the AFEC3 has the ability to have a fairly good bonding with the epoxy matrix.     

Friction and wear properties of Kevlar pulp reinforced epoxy composites under dry sliding condition

In this work, the friction and wear properties of Kevlar pulp reinforced epoxy composites against GCr15 steel under dry sliding condition were evaluated on a reciprocating ball-on-block UMT-2MT tribometer. The effects of Kevlar pulp content on tribological properties of the composites were investigated. The worn surface morphologies of neat epoxy and its composites were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the wear mechanisms discussed. The results show that the incorporation of Kevlar pulp into epoxy contributed to improve the friction and wear behavior considerably. The maximum wear reduction was obtained when the content of Kevlar pulp is 40 vol%. The friction coefficient of epoxy and its composites increased with load while increase in the sliding frequency induced a reverse effect. Fatigue wear and scuffing were notable for the neat epoxy. The fatigue cracks were greatly abated when the filler content was 40 vol%. The wear grooves appeared on the worn surface at higher filler content.     

Tribological Behavior of Micrometer- and Submicrometer-Size Cenosphere Particulate-Filled Glass Fiber–Reinforced Vinylester Composites Under Dry and Water-Lubricated Sliding Conditions

In this work, the tribological behavior of micrometer and submicrometer cenosphere particulate–filled E-glass fiber–reinforced vinylester composites have been investigated on a pin-on-disc tester under dry sliding and water-lubricated sliding conditions. Three different uniform sizes of cenosphere particles (2 μm, 900 nm, 400 nm) were used as fillers in the glass fiber–reinforced vinylester composites. The weight fraction of cenosphere particles has been varied in the ranges from 5, 10, 15, to 20 wt%. The experimental results show that all of the composites exhibited lower coefficient of friction and lower wear resistance under water-lubricated sliding conditions than under dry sliding. It has been noted that the submicrometer size (400 nm) cenosphere particulates as fillers contributed significantly to improve the wear resistance. It has also been noted that 10 wt% of the cenosphere particles is the most effective in reducing the wear rate and coefficient of friction. Effects of various wear parameters such as applied normal loads, sliding speeds, particle size, and particle content on the tribological behavior were also discussed. In order to understand the wear mechanism, the morphologies of the worn surface were analyzed by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for composite specimens under both dry and water-lubricated sliding conditions.     

Study on long life of artificial joints by investigating optimal sliding surface geometry for improvement in wear resistance

The effective life of artificial joints is approximately 15 years. A smooth metal sliding surface is presumably the most suitable when manufacturing artificial joints; however, the relationship between the characteristics of metal sliding surface and ultra high molecular polyethylene (UHMWPE) wear has not been confirmed. Further, there is no apparent proof that a smooth surface is the optimal option for the improvement in the wear resistance of artificial joints. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of UHMWPE wear and proved that scratch marks caused by a sliding motion against the metal surface are the prime cause of UHMWPE wear. Furthermore, we used a micro-dimpled surface as an effective sliding surface to reduce the UHMWPE wear. A 2-axes pin-on-plate sliding test proved that the life of artificial joints can be extended to approximately 35 years by using a micro-dimpled surface with 1-μm deep dimples.     

聚酰亚胺复合材料与不同金属间干滑动时的摩擦学性能

采用MPX-2000型摩擦磨损试验机研究了聚四氟乙烯和二硫化钼填充聚酰亚胺复合材料在干滑动摩擦条件下与45钢、镍铬合金、铜和铝对磨时的摩擦磨损性能,并利用扫描电子显微镜和光学显微镜分析了复合材料及对偶件的磨损表面形貌。结果表明:复合材料与铝对磨时的摩擦因数和磨损率最低,分别约为与钢摩擦时的43%和49%;摩擦后铝表面形成均匀连续的转移膜,45钢、镍铬合金和铜的表面没有形成有效转移膜,因此复合材料的摩擦因数较大;复合材料与不同金属材料摩擦时的磨损机理主要是粘着磨损与疲劳磨损。     

Analysis of Sliding Wear Characteristics of BFS Filled Composites Using an Experimental Design Approach Integrated with ANN

Short fiber-reinforced polymer composites are used in numerous tribological applications. In the present work, an attempt was made to improve the wear resistance of short glass fiber (SGF)-reinforced epoxy composites by incorporation of microsized blast furnace slag (BFS) particles. The effect of various operational variables and material parameters on the sliding wear behavior of these composites was studied systematically. The design of experiments approach using Taguchi's orthogonal arrays was used. This systematic experimentation led to identification of significant variables that predominantly influence the wear rate. The Taguchi approach enabled us to determine optimal parameter settings that led to minimization of the wear rate. The morphology of worn surfaces was then examined by scanning electron microscopy and possible wear mechanisms are discussed. Further, in this article, the potential of using artificial neural networks (ANNs) for the prediction of sliding wear properties of polymer composites is explored using an experimental data set generated from a series of pin-on-disc sliding wear tests on epoxy matrix composites. The ANN prediction profiles for the characteristic tribological properties exhibited very good agreement with the measured results, demonstrating that a well-trained network was created. The simulated results explaining the effect of significant process variables on the wear rate indicated that the trained neural network possessed enough generalization capability to predict wear rate from any input data that are different from the original training data set.