Soil Apparent Electrical Conductivity (EC<Subscript>a</Subscript>) as a Means of Monitoring Changesin Soil Inorganic N on Heterogeneous Morainic Soils in SE Norway During Two Growing Seasons

An efficient method to monitor changes in soil inorganic N content during crop growth would be a useful means to guide N fertilization to ensure high yields and low N losses to the environment. In this study, soil apparent electrical conductivity (EC_a) measured by the widely used conductivity meter EM38 was tested as an indirect measurement of available N in spring barley during two cropping seasons at two sites with morainic loam in SE Norway. The experiment was constructed to maximize soil variation. In spite of the ȁ8noiseȁ9 caused by the soil heterogeneity, concentrations of inorganic N (cN_inorg) or NO₃-N were most strongly correlated with EC_a in both years and at both locations (with one exception). The measurements of EC_a reflected well the temporal variation in inorganic N content (N_inorg), and a ranking of the treatments based on EC_a fitted very well with a ranking based on N_inorg at the first three sampling times after fertilizing. The best subset of sensor variables (i.e. variables which can be measured ȁ8on-the-goȁ9 by sensor techniques in the field) described 27–69% (average 47%) of the variation in topsoil cN_inorg. When expanding the regression models to include pH as well, the degree of explanation increased significantly. In conclusion, the method of using EC_a appears to be quite robust in terms of detecting relative differences in cN_inorg, whereas a determination of absolute levels of cN_inorg with the method is unreliable.     

Legal reasoning with subjective logic

Judges and jurors must make decisions in an environment of ignoranceand uncertainty for example by hearing statements of possibly unreliable ordishonest witnesses, assessing possibly doubtful or irrelevantevidence, and enduring attempts by the opponents to manipulate thejudge's and the jurors' perceptions and feelings. Three importantaspects of decision making in this environment are the quantificationof sufficient proof, the weighing of pieces of evidence, and therelevancy of evidence. This paper proposes a mathematical frameworkfor dealing with the two first aspects, namely the quantification ofproof and weighing of evidence. Our approach is based on subjectivelogic, which is an extension of standard logic and probability theory,in which the notion of probability is extended by including degrees ofuncertainty. Subjective Logic is a framework for modelling humanreasoning and we show how it can be applied to legalreasoning.     

Modeling the longitudinal variation of sawn timber grades in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.)

Grades derived from visual assessments of sawn timber are determined by the worst part of each piece. Since grade varies longitudinally in timber, grade yield will decrease if the average length of timber increases. The variation in grade is caused by longitudinal variation in knot properties and other features as they appear on the sawn surface taken into account during grading. The objective of this study is to describe and analyze this variation in Picea abies. The study consisting of 768 boards for which all features that could lead to downgrading were recorded noting position, type and size. Based on this information, all boards were graded according to appearance by Nordic Timber, and strength by INSTA 142. Logistic regression models of grade as a function of position in the stem were developed, and the dependence between responses was taken into consideration by using General Estimating Equations (GEE). The models showed a decreasing trend in grade from the butt end toward the top end of the trees, and the effect was more pronounced in strength grading than in appearance grading. Models with binomial response and different correlation structures were tested, and it was shown that both independent and autoregressive correlation structures could be used. This suggests that a multinomial ordinal logistic regression with a GEE-approach with an independent correlation structure is appropriate for modeling grade in this study.     

Sensitivity of Phage Lambda upon Variations of the Gibbs Free Energy

We investigate the sensitivity of production rates (activities) of the regulatory proteins CI (repressor) and Cro at the right operator (O_R) of bacteriophage lambda. The DNA binding energies of CI, Cro, and RNA polymerase are perturbed to check the uncertainty of the activity, due to the experimental error, by means of a computational scattering method according to which the binding energies are simultaneously chosen at random around the literature values, with a width corresponding to the experimental error. In a grand canonical ensemble, with the randomly drawn protein-DNA binding energies as input, we calculate the corresponding activities of the promoters P_RM and P_R. By repeating this procedure we obtain a mean value of the activity that roughly corresponds to wild-type (unperturbed) activity. The standard deviation emerging from this scheme, a measure of the sensitivity due to experimental error, is significant (typically >20% relative to wild-type activity), but still the promoter activities are sufficiently separated to make the switch feasible. We also suggest a new, compact way of presenting repressor and Cro data.     

Unexplained site variance in machine strength grading of Norway spruce structural timber

The aim of the study was to assess site effects in terms of unexplained site variance in machine strength grading of Norway spruce structural timber. The site effects were estimated for grading based on axial resonance frequency and timber length, and for grading based on dynamic modulus of elasticity. Timber was collected from 14 sites in Norway, and linear mixed models were developed based on 1188 boards. The study showed that strength grading based on axial resonance frequency and timber length leaves out effects of site that are related to altitude, latitude and site index. The variance could be reduced when the grading was based on dynamic modulus of elasticity. For both grading methods, the site effects were smaller for bending strength than for modulus of elasticity and density. Major parts of the site effects were explained by mass density, and simulations showed that it is possible to fulfil the requirements of the strength classes with a higher yield when the sorting is based on a combination of exclusion by mass density and exclusion by the frequency-based indicating property.     

System-wide emissions implications of increased wind power penetration

This paper discusses the environmental effects of incorporating wind energy into the electric power system. We present a detailed emissions analysis based on comprehensive modeling of power system operations with unit commitment and economic dispatch for different wind penetration levels. First, by minimizing cost, the unit commitment model decides which thermal power plants will be utilized based on a wind power forecast, and then, the economic dispatch model dictates the level of production for each unit as a function of the realized wind power generation. Finally, knowing the power production from each power plant, the emissions are calculated. The emissions model incorporates the effects of both cycling and start-ups of thermal power plants in analyzing emissions from an electric power system with increasing levels of wind power. Our results for the power system in the state of Illinois show significant emissions effects from increased cycling and particularly start-ups of thermal power plants. However, we conclude that as the wind power penetration increases, pollutant emissions decrease overall due to the replacement of fossil fuels.     

A liquefied energy chain for transport and utilization of natural gas for power production with CO2 capture and storage – Part 1

A novel transport chain for stranded natural gas utilized for power production with CO₂ capture and storage is developed. It includes an offshore section, a combined gas carrier, and an onshore integrated receiving terminal. Due to utilization of the cold exergy both in the offshore and onshore processes, and combined use of the gas carrier, the transport chain is both energy and cost effective. In this paper, the liquefied energy chain (LEC) is explained, including novel processes for both the offshore field site and onshore market site. In the offshore section, natural gas (NG) is liquefied to LNG by liquid carbon dioxide (LCO₂) and liquid inert nitrogen (LIN), which are used as cold carriers. The LNG is transported in a combined gas carrier to the receiving terminal where it is used as a cooling agent to liquefy CO₂ and nitrogen. The LCO₂ and LIN are transported offshore using the same combined carrier. Pinch and Exergy Analyses are used to determine the optimal offshore and onshore processes and the best transport conditions. The exergy efficiency for a thermodynamically optimized process is 87% and 71% for the offshore and onshore processes, respectively, yielding a total efficiency of 52%. The offshore process is self-supported with power and can operate with few units of rotating equipment and without flammable refrigerants. The loss of natural gas due to power generation for the energy requirements in the LEC processes is roughly one third of the loss in a conventional transport chain for stranded natural gas with CO₂ sequestration. The LEC has several configurations and can be used for small scale (<0.25 MTPA LNG) to large-scale (>5 MTPA LNG) transport. In the example in this paper, the total costs for the simple LEC including transport of natural gas to a 400 MW_net power plant and return of 85% of the corresponding carbon as CO₂ for a total sailing distance of 24 h are 58.1 EUR/tonne LNG excluding or including the cost of power. The total power requirements are 319 kWh/tonne, hence the energy costs are 31.9 EUR/tonne LNG adding up to 90.0 EUR/tonne LNG. The exergy efficiency for this energy chain including power production and CO₂ capture is 46.4% with a total cost of 20.4 EUR/MWh for the produced electricity. The total emissions (in CO₂ equivalents) in the chain are 1–1.5% of the transported CO₂.     

A liquefied energy chain for transport and utilization of natural gas for power production with CO2 capture and storage – Part 3: The combined carrier and onshore storage

A novel energy and cost effective transport chain for stranded natural gas utilized for power production with CO₂ capture and storage is developed. It includes an offshore section, a combined gas carrier and an integrated receiving terminal. The combined carrier will transport liquid carbon dioxide (LCO₂) and liquid nitrogen (LIN) outbound, where natural gas (NG) is cooled and liquefied to LNG by vaporization of LIN and LCO₂ onboard the carrier. The same carrier is used to transport the LNG onshore, where the NG can be used for power production with CO₂ capture. The combined carrier consists of 10 cylindrical tanks with a diameter of 9.2 m and varying lengths from 14 to 40 m. The total ship volume is 13,000 m³. Assuming 85% capture rate of the CO₂, the maximum ship utilization factor (SUF) is 63.4%. Due to the combined use of the storage tanks, the SUF is decreased with 1.4% points to 62%. The ship is equipped with a bi-directional submerged turret loading for anchoring and loading of NG and unloading of CO₂. Two ships can deliver NG to and remove CO₂ from a 400 MW_net power plant, and still obtain continuous production of LNG offshore without intermediate storage. The investment cost for each gas carrier is 40 million EUR giving total transport cost of 16.9 EUR/tonne LNG. The cost for the offshore transfer system is 6.6 million EUR per tonne LNG, whereas the cost for onshore storage and loading system is 3.1 and 0.8 million EUR per tonne LNG, respectively. The total specific costs for the ship transport, including onshore storage, loading shipping and offshore unloading are 27.5 EUR per tonne LNG for a roundtrip of 5 days, including voyage, production of LNG, unloading, connecting and berthing.     

Quantitative determination of saturated-, monounsaturated- and polyunsaturated fatty acids in pork adipose tissue with non-destructive Raman spectroscopy

The composition of dietary fat has received increased attention during the recent years because it influences human health. Seventy seven samples from pork adipose tissue and melted fat from the same tissue were measured with Raman spectroscopy. Gas chromatography analysis was conducted as reference. Iodine values (IV) ranged from 58.2 to 90.4 g iodine added per 100 g fat. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) ranged from 7.8% to 31.7% and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) from 35.2% to 51.5% of total fatty acids. When applied on pre-processed spectra of melted fat, partial least square regression (PLSR) with cross-validation gave a correlation coefficient (R) = 0.98, and root mean square error of cross-validation (RMSECV) = 1.4 for IV, using 3 PLS factors in the model. PUFA gave R = 0.98 and RMSECV = 1.0% of total fatty acids, using 5 PLS factors. MUFA were predicted with R = 0.96 and RMSECV = 1.0% of total fatty acids, using 9 PLS factors. On adipose tissue a model with 3 PLS factors gave R = 0.97 and RMSECV = 1.8 for IV. For PUFA, a model with 3 PLS factors gave R = 0.95 and RMSECV = 1.5% of total fatty acids. For MUFA a model with 6 PLS factors gave R = 0.91 and RMSECV = 1.5% of total fatty acids. The results indicate the feasibility to use Raman spectroscopy as a rapid and non-destructive method to determine IV, PUFA, MUFA and saturated fatty acids (SFA) measured directly on pork adipose tissue and in melted fat from the same tissue.