Application of High Temperature Corrosion-Resistant Materials and Coatings Under Severe Corrosive Environment in Waste-to-Energy Boilers

Corrosion-resistant materials (CRMs) and coatings are key technologies to increase power generation efficiency and reduce maintenance in waste-to-energy (WTE) plants. Corrosion environment became severe as steam temperatures have increased. The steam condition of more than 400 °C/3.9 MPa became possible in WTE boilers by using highly durable corrosion-resistant coatings, such as thermal spray of Al/80Ni20Cr alloy, HVOF-sprayed NiCrSiB alloy, Alloy 625 weld overlay for waterwall tubes and also superheater tubes. Also, the use of 310S type stainless steels and high Cr-high Mo-Ni base and high Si-Cr-Ni-Fe alloys have progressed because of a better understanding of corrosion mechanisms. Furthermore, high durability coatings using cermet and ceramic materials were applied to high temperature superheaters. This paper describes the major developments and the application of CRMs and coating technologies in the last 30 years in WTE plants, the corrosion mechanisms of alloys, the deterioration mechanisms of spray coating layers, and future subjects for the development of corrosion-resistant materials and coatings.     

酯固化碱性酚醛树脂粘结剂及其固化机理的研究

研究了酯固化碱性酚醛树脂的合成工艺，得到了高强度的粘结剂；分析了硅烷偶联剂对粘结强度的影响，并对酯的固化机理作了初步探讨。     

High-temperature oxidation of directionally solidified Ni-Cr-Nb-AI (γ/γ′-δ) eutectic alloys

The oxidation of Ni-23.1Nb-4.4Al and Ni-19.7Nb-6 Cr-2.5Al alloys in air at temperatures in the range 870–1100°C has been studied for times up to 168 hr, in the as-cast, slowly cooled, and directionally solidified forms. The oxidation rate decreases with increasing temperature for the ternary alloy, and this appears to be due to the increasing tendency to establish a continuous Al₂O₃ layer at the metal surface, although at no temperature in this range is a complete layer established. At the lowest temperature the -Ni₃Nb lamellae are preferentially oxidized, with fingers of oxide extending into the metal, but at 900°C and above a continuous single-phase 8-free layer is established at the metal surface very early in the oxidation. The oxidation rate of the quaternary alloy increases with increasing temperature. At the lower temperatures a continuous Al₂O₃ layer is established at the metal surface, but at the highest temperature the aluminum oxidizes internally and a continuous layer is not established, internal oxidation penetrating down the lamellae. It appears that niobium, like chromium, is able to promote the formation of external Al₂O₃ layers; if this fact is accepted, the beneficial role of chromium in these alloys is difficult to explain.     

大块非晶合金的形成能力及研究进展

综合评述了大块非晶合金形成的控制因素，从热力学、动力学和结构三个方面讨论了大块非晶合金的形成机理；并简介了大块非品合金的制备技术和研究现状。     

铸钢件气孔形成机理分析及预防措施

通过对气孔缺陷实例进行理论分析与探讨,得出铸钢件气孔产生原因主要分3种类型:脱氧不良及二次氧化,使钢液含氧量过高,在凝固降温过程中,碳氧平衡被破坏,发生碳氧反应,生成CO反应性气孔;炼钢氧化期后和浇注过程中,水蒸气对钢液的二次氧化,使钢液大量吸氢。在钢液凝固期间,氢因溶解度急剧降低而析出,形成析出性H2气孔;石灰石砂芯在高温下分解产生大量CO2气体不能及时排出,产生侵入性气孔。针对不同气孔形成机理提出了防止措施,有效地消除了气孔缺陷。     

Isothermal oxidation behavior of FeCo–2V intermetallic alloy

Isothermal oxidation behavior and the nature of oxide layer formed during oxidation of FeCo–2V alloy were characterized in the temperature range of 500–600 °C. Oxidation kinetics of the alloy follows a parabolic rate law. SEM and XRD studies indicate the formation of an iron rich outer oxide layer and an inner solute rich layer containing cobalt and vanadium rich oxides. The oxidation mechanism of the FeCo–2V alloy is similar to that of low alloy steels. During the initial stages, preferential oxidation of iron and cobalt occurs at the alloy surface and leads to the formation of a solute rich inner layer. Continued oxidation occurs through oxidation of iron and cobalt at the outer layer and internal oxidation of inner layer. The iron rich oxide layer formed at the surface on oxidation of FeCo alloy is semi-conducting in nature and may not provide the necessary insulating barrier required at the surface to minimize eddy current losses during A.C. applications.     

Recent progress in the modeling of high-temperature creep and its application to alloy development

Recent progress in the understanding of high-temperature creep of alloys is discussed in the context of theoretical modeling and its application to alloy development. Emphasis is placed upon those engineering alloys specifically designed for high-temperature applications, such as precipitation and dispersion-strengthened (DS) alloys and metal-matrix composites (MMCs). Currently, these theoretical models use one of two different approaches, (a) a phenomenological approach, which is used in such models as those based on the internal stress concept, and those based on empirical creep equations; and (b) micromechanical models that are based on dislocation mechanisms and the interactions of dislocations with solute atoms, second-phase particles, and other reinforcements such as fibers. All these theoretical models have a common goal, namely, the understanding of high-temperature strengthening mechanisms and the relationship between high-temperature strength and the micromechanical mechanisms during high-temperature plastic deformation of the alloys. These theoretical studies can provide information that is useful in alloy design and processing, such as the selection of alloy chemistry, and the optimization of phase microstructural features (e.g., reinforcement amount, shape, size, and distribution; matrix grain size; and matrix and reinforcement interfaces) by optimization of processing methods. L. Shi, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22901, USA     

The air oxidation of an austenitic Fe-Mn-Cr stainless steel for fusion-reactor applications

The oxidation in air of an austenitic Fe-Mn-Cr steel containing 17.8 Mn, 9.5 Cr, 1.0 Ni, 0.27 C, and 0.03 N was studied over the range 700–1000°C. Oxidation of surface-abraded samples at low temperatures, 700–750°C, resulted in only Mn ₂O₃ containing dissolved chromium, except at corners, where large nodules containing spinel and manganowustite formed. The Mn₂O₃ layer grew into the substrate forming a globular-type film. This growth mode was the result of slow interdiffusion in the alloy after the cold-worked surface layer had been recrystallized and/or consumed, as evidenced by the formation of a ferrite layer subjacent to the scale and by the instability of the planar interface. No internal oxidation was observed beneath the Mn₂O₃ film at either 700 or 750°C. Samples oxidized in thehigh-temperature region, 800–1000°C, exhibited vastly different behavior, forming thick stratified scales at long times (24 hr), the scales consisting of a very thin outer layer of Mn₂O₃ (with appreciable iron in solution), Fe-Mn spinel beneath the outer layer, and a thick inner layer of manganowustite and a chromium-containing spinel. No chromium was found in the outer two layers. A thin layer of nearly pure Fe₂O₃ formed between Mn₂O₃ and the outer spinel. Quasiparabolic kinetics were observed. The high-temperature rates were about 10³ to 10⁴ times greater than at low temperatures at the transition temperature. The rapid rates at high temperatures were attributed to manganowustite growth. However, oxidation of an electropolished sample at 750°C, from which the superficial cold-worked layer had been removed, formed scales similar to those observed at high temperatures at comparable rates. A difference by a factor of over 10⁴ existed between the oxidation rate of the electropolished sample and the surface-abraded sample at 750°C. The much slower oxidation rate of the latter is attributed to greatly enchanced manganese diffusion through the high dislocation-density, cold-worked layer. Short-time tests at 800°C revealed an incubation period during which a thin protective layer of Mn²O₃ formed. The incubation period corresponded to the recrystallization time of the cold-worked layer. Subsequently, nodular growth occurred which was associated with internal oxidation. The nodules, consisting of spinel and manganowustite, eventually linked up to form a thick, stratified scale. Comparison of the scale structures with calculated phase diagrams of composition versus oxygen activity (at constant temperature), showed that the protective films formed at low temperatures were due to kinetics factors, involving enhanced manganese diffusion through the cold-worked layer, rather than to thermodynamics. A model for the breakdown of protective films is proposed which involves internal oxidation.     

The influence of grain-boundary segregation of Y in Cr2O3 on the oxidation of Cr metal

The oxidation behavior at 900°C of pure Cr and Cr implanted with 2×10¹⁶ Y ions/cm² was studied. The kinetics of oxidation were measured thermogravimetrically and manometrically. The mechanisms of oxide growth were studied using¹⁸O-tracer oxidation experiments, and the composition and microstructure of the oxide scales were characterized by TEM and STEM. Segregation of Y cations at Cr₂O₃ grain boundaries was found to be the critical factor governing changes in the oxidation behavior of Cr upon the addition of Y. In the absence of Y, pure Cr oxidized by the outward diffusion of cations via grain boundaries in the Cr₂O₃ scale. When Y was present at high concentration in the scale, as when Cr implanted with 2×10¹⁰ Y ions/cm² was oxidized, anion diffusion predominated. It is concluded that strain-induced segregation of Y at grain boundaries in the oxide reduced the cation flux along the grain boundaries. The rate of oxidation was reduced because the grain-boundary diffusivity of cations became lower than the grain-boundary diffusivity of the anions, which then controlled the rate of oxidation. Changes in the relative rates of Cr³⁺ and O^2– transport, as well as a solute-drag effect exerted by Y on the oxide grain boundaries, resulted in changes in the microstructure of the oxide.     

Verification of Knowledge Assets in Electronic Repositories: Expert- and Community-Governance

Two mechanisms that verify knowledge contributions in electronic repositories are expert-governance and community-governance. Our goal is to examine repository users' perceptions of the conditions under which these mechanisms verify knowledge contributions. Qualitative data show that perceived credibility of experts, perceived ownership of content, and experts' (meticulous) execution of governance functions are salient for expert-governance, and the perceived involvement of community members, and community members' (continuous and collective) execution of governance functions are important for community-governance.