Comparative effect of simulated solar light,UV, UV/H2O2 and photo-Fenton treatment (UV–Vis/H2O2/Fe) in the Escherichia coli inactivation in artificial seawater

Innovative disinfection technologies are being studied for seawater, seeking a viable alternative to chlorination. This study proposes the use of H₂O₂/UV₂₅₄ and photo-Fenton as disinfection treatment in seawater. The irradiations were carried out using a sunlight simulator (Suntest) and a cylindrical UV reactor. The efficiency of the treatment was compared for Milli-Q water, Leman Lake water and artificial seawater. The presence of bicarbonates and organic matter was investigated in order to evaluate possible effects on the photo-Fenton disinfection treatment. The photo-Fenton treatment, employing 1 mg L⁻¹ Fe²⁺ and 10 mg L⁻¹ of H₂O₂, led to the fastest bacterial inactivation kinetics. Using H₂O₂/UV₂₅₄ high disinfection rates were obtained similar to those obtained with photo-Fenton under UV₂₅₄ light. In Milli-Q water, the rate of inactivation for Escherichia coli was higher than in Leman Lake water and seawater due to the lack of inorganic ions affecting negatively bacteria inactivation. The presence of bicarbonate showed scavenging of the OH^• radicals generated in the treatment of photo-Fenton and H₂O₂/UV₂₅₄. Despite the negative effect of inorganic ions, especially HCO₃^-, the disinfection treatments with AOPs in lake water and seawater improved significantly the disinfection compared to light alone (simulated sunlight and UV₂₅₄). In the treatment of photo-Fenton with simulated sunlight, dissolved organic matter had a beneficial effect by increasing the rate of inactivation. This is associated with the formation of Fe³⁺-organo photosensitive complexes leading to the formation of ROS able to inactivate bacteria. This effect was not observed in the photo-Fenton with UV₂₅₄. Growth of E. coli surviving in seawater was observed 24 and 48 h after treatment with UV light. However, growth of surviving bacteria was not detected after photo-Fenton with UV₂₅₄ and H₂O₂/UV₂₅₄ treatments.     

Kinetic assessment and modeling of an ozonation step for full-scale municipal wastewater treatment: Micropollutant oxidation, by-product formation and disinfection

The kinetics of oxidation and disinfection processes during ozonation in a full-scale reactor treating secondary wastewater effluent were investigated for seven ozone doses ranging from 0.21 to 1.24 g O₃ g⁻¹ dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Substances reacting fast with ozone, such as diclofenac or carbamazepine (kP,O₃ > 10⁴ M⁻¹ s⁻¹), were eliminated within the gas bubble column, except for the lowest ozone dose of 0.21 g O₃ g⁻¹ DOC. For this low dose, this could be attributed to short-circuiting within the reactor. Substances with lower ozone reactivity (kP,O₃ < 10⁴ M⁻¹ s⁻¹) were only fully eliminated for higher ozone doses.The predictions of micropollutant oxidation based on coupling reactor hydraulics with ozone chemistry and reaction kinetics were up to a factor of 2.5 higher than full-scale measurements. Monte Carlo simulations showed that the observed differences were higher than model uncertainties. The overestimation of micropollutant oxidation was attributed to a protection of micropollutants from ozone attack by the interaction with aquatic colloids. Laboratory-scale batch experiments using wastewater from the same full-scale treatment plant could predict the oxidation of slowly-reacting micropollutants on the full-scale level within a factor of 1.5. The Rct value, the experimentally determined ratio of the concentrations of hydroxyl radicals and ozone, was identified as a major contribution to this difference.An increase in the formation of bromate, a potential human carcinogen, was observed with increasing ozone doses. The final concentration for the highest ozone dose of 1.24 g O₃ g⁻¹ DOC was 7.5 μg L⁻¹, which is below the drinking water standard of 10 μg L⁻¹. N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation of up to 15 ng L⁻¹ was observed in the first compartment of the reactor, followed by a slight elimination during sand filtration. Assimilable organic carbon (AOC) increased up to 740 μg AOC L⁻¹, with no clear trend when correlated to the ozone dose, and decreased by up to 50% during post-sand filtration. The disinfection capacity of the ozone reactor was assessed to be 1-4.5 log units in terms of total cell counts (TCC) and 0.5 to 2.5 log units for Escherichia coli (E. coli). Regrowth of up to 2.5 log units during sand filtration was observed for TCC while no regrowth occurred for E. coli. E. coli inactivation could not be accurately predicted by the model approach, most likely due to shielding of E. coli by flocs.     

Characteristic transformation of humic acid during photoelectrocatalysis process and its subsequent disinfection byproduct formation potential

In this study, degradation of humic acid (HA) via photoelectrocatalysis (PEC) process and corresponding disinfection byproduct formation potential (DBPFP) were investigated. Particularly, structure variation and subsequent DBPFP of HA during PEC treatment were correlated. The PEC process was found to be effective in reducing dissolved organic carbon concentration by 75.0% and UV absorbance at 254 nm by 92.0%. Furthermore, 90.3% of haloacetic acids formation potential and 89.8% of trihalomethanes formation potential were reduced within 180 min. Based on molecular weight and resin fraction results, it was demonstrated that HA with large aromatic, hydrophobic and long aliphatic chain organics were transformed into small and hydrophilic organics during PEC process. Combined with the fourier transform infrared spectra and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectra analysis of HA fractions, it was concluded that phenolic hydroxyl and conjugated double bonds tended to be attacked by hydroxyl radicals during PEC process; these groups were reactive with chlorine to produce disinfection byproducts (DBP), especially trihalomethane and trichloroacetic acid. By contrast, amino, carboxyl and alcoholic hydroxyl groups were relatively difficult to be oxidized during PEC process; these groups had the potential to form dichloroacetic acid during chlorination. Results of these studies confirmed that PEC process was a safe and effective technique to decrease DBP formation significantly in water treatment plant.     

Silver-modified mesoporous TiO2 photocatalyst for water purification

Mesoporous anatase (TiO₂) was modified with silver (Ag) nanoparticles using a photoreduction method. Performance of the resulting TiO₂-Ag nanocomposites for water purification was evaluated using degradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) and disinfection of Escherichia coli (E. coli) under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. The composites with different Ag loadings were characterized using physical adsorption of nitrogen, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and UV-Visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopic techniques. The results showed that metallic Ag nanoparticles were firmly immobilized on the TiO₂ surface, which improved electron-hole separation by forming the Schottky barrier at the TiO₂-Ag interface. Photocatalytic degradation of RhB and inactivation of E. coli effectively occurred in an analogical trend. The deposited Ag slightly decreased adsorption of target pollutants, but greatly increased adsorption of molecular oxygen with the latter enhancing production of reactive oxygen species (ROSs) with concomitant increase in contaminant photodegradation. The optimal Ag loadings for RhB degradation and E. coli disinfection were 0.25 wt% and 2.0 wt%, respectively. The composite photocatalysts were stable and could be used repeatedly under UV irradiation.     

Effect of particles and bioflocculation on ultraviolet disinfection of Escherichia coli

Presence of particles is known to decrease the effectiveness of ultraviolet (UV) disinfection by shielding the targeted microorganisms from UV light. This study aims to provide an in-depth understanding on the effect of particles and flocs on UV disinfection by using a stable, well-defined and well-controlled synthetic system that can simulate the bioflocculation of particles and microorganisms in water and wastewater samples. The synthetic system was created by using Escherichia coli, latex particles (1, 3.2, 11, 25, and 45 μm), alginate, and divalent cations; and the bioflocculation of particles was achieved naturally, as it would occur in the environment, without using chemical coagulants. E. coli was quantified before and after UV disinfection using membrane filtration. Even in the absence of particles, some of the self-aggregated E. coli could survive a UV dose of 90 mJ/cm². E. coli inactivation levels measured in the presence of particles were lower than the inactivation levels measured in the absence of particles. At low UV doses (<9 mJ/cm²), neither particle size nor degree of flocculation had a significant effect on the inactivation of E. coli. Particle size had a significant effect on the inactivation of E. coli only at high UV doses (80 mJ/cm²), and larger particles (e.g., 25 μm) protected bacteria more compared to smaller particles (e.g., 3.2 and 11 μm). What size of particles flocs were made of (3.2, 11, and 25 μm) did not make a significant difference on the inactivation levels of E. coli. For 3.2 μm particles, there was no significant difference in E. coli inactivation between non-flocculated and flocculated samples at any UV dose. For 11 and 25 μm particles, there was a significant difference in E. coli inactivation between non-flocculated and flocculated samples at 80 mJ/cm². Degree of flocculation became a significant factor in determining the number of surviving bacteria only at high UV doses and only for larger particles.     

Effects of UV/H2O2 advanced oxidation on chemical characteristics and chlorine reactivity of surface water natural organic matter

The advanced oxidation process utilizing ultraviolet and hydrogen peroxide (UV/H₂O₂) is currently applied in commercial drinking water applications for the removal of various organic pollutants. Natural organic matter (NOM) present in the source water can also be oxidized and undergo changes at the fluence and H₂O₂ concentrations applied in commercial drinking water UV/H₂O₂ applications (fluences less than 2000 mJ cm⁻², initial H₂O₂ concentrations less than 15 mg L⁻¹). In this study, the impact of UV/H₂O₂ on NOM’s aromaticity, hydrophobicity, and potential to form trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) was investigated for raw surface water and the same water with the very hydrophobic acid (VHA) fraction of NOM removed. During UV/H₂O₂ treatments, NOM in the raw surface water was partially oxidized to less aromatic and hydrophobic characteristics, but was not mineralized, confirming findings from past research. Below fluences of 1500 mJ cm⁻² UV/H₂O₂ treatment of the raw water did not lead to reduction in the formation potential of THMs. The formation potential of HAAs was reduced at a fluence of 500 mJ cm⁻² with only small additional reductions as fluence further increased. For the water from which the VHA fraction was removed, UV/H₂O₂ treatment led to mineralization of NOM suggesting that, when coupled with a pre-treatment capable of removing the VHA fraction, UV/H₂O₂ could achieve further reductions in NOM. These subsequent reductions in NOM led to continuous reductions in the formation potentials of THMs and HAAs as fluence increased.     

Roles of singlet oxygen and triplet excited state of dissolved organic matter formed by different organic matters in bacteriophage MS2 inactivation

Inactivation of bacteriophage MS2 by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and triplet excited state of dissolved organic matter (³DOM*) produced by irradiation of natural and synthetic sensitizers with simulated sunlight of wavelengths greater than 320 nm was investigated. Natural sensitizers included purified DOM isolates obtained from wastewater and river waters, and water samples collected from Singapore River, Stamford Canal, and Marina Bay Reservoir in Singapore. Linear correlations were found between MS2 inactivation rate constants (k_obs) and the photo-induced reaction rate constants of 2,4,6-trimethylphenol (TMP), a probe compound shown to react mainly with ³DOM*. Linear correlations between MS2 k_obs and singlet oxygen (¹O₂) concentrations were also found for both purified DOM isolates and natural water samples. These correlations, along with data from quenching experiments and experiments with synthetic sensitizers, Rose Bengal (RB), 3′-methoxyacetophenone (3′-MAP), and nitrite (₂NO⁻)$\left({{\text{NO}}_2}^{-}\right)$, suggest that ¹O₂, ³DOM*, and hydroxyl radicals (^•OH) could inactivate bacteriophage MS2. Linear correlations between MS2 k_obs and Specific Ultraviolet Absorption determined at 254 nm (SUVA₂₅₄) were also found for both purified DOM isolates and natural samples. These results suggest the potential use of TMP as a chemical probe and SUVA₂₅₄ as an indicator for virus inactivation in natural and purified DOM water samples.     

A comparison of pilot-scale photocatalysis and enhanced coagulation for disinfection byproduct mitigation

This study evaluated pilot-scale photocatalysis and enhanced coagulation for their ability to remove or destroy disinfection byproduct (DBP) precursors, trihalomethane (THM) formation potential (FP), and THMs in two Arizona surface waters. Limited photocatalysis (<5 kWh/m³) achieved reductions in most of the DBP precursor parameters (e.g., DOC, UV₂₅₄, and bromide) but led to increased chlorine demand and THMFP. In contrast, enhanced coagulation achieved reductions in the DBP precursors and THMFP. Extended photocatalysis (<320 kWh/m³) decreased THMFP once the energy consumption exceeded 20 kWh/m³. The photocatalytic energy requirements for THM destruction were considerably lower (EEO = 20-60 kWh/m³) than when focusing on precursor destruction and THMFP. However, rechlorination increased the total THM (TTHM) concentration well beyond the raw value, thereby negating the energy benefits of this application. Enhanced coagulation achieved consistent 20-30% removals of preformed THMs. Outstanding issues need to be addressed before TiO₂ photocatalysis is considered feasible for DBP mitigation; traditional strategies, including enhanced coagulation, may be more appropriate.     

Effects of primary sludge particulate (PSP) entrapment on ultrasonic (20 kHz) disinfection of Escherichia coli

The role of primary sludge particulates (PSPs) in ultrasonic disinfection of Escherichia coli (E. coli) was investigated. Entrapment of E. coli by PSP was directly observed through scanning electron microscope (SEM) after E. coli and PSP were incubated together in water for 24 h at 35 °C. Entrapment coefficient was proposed for the first time to reflect the ability of PSP to entrap E. coli and was estimated as 1.4 × 10³ CFU/mg PSP under our experimental conditions. Ultrasonication (20 kHz) of different E. coli-PSPs solutions showed that the entrapped E. coli cells were protected by PSP from ultrasonication and the unentrapped cells were not. However, the protection of entrapped E. coli cells gradually decreased as ultrasonication proceeded, suggesting the ability of power ultrasonication to deprotect the entrapped E. coli cells. SEM studies suggested a two-step mechanism for ultrasonic (20 kHz) disinfection of entrapped E. coli: breakdown of the protective PSP refugia and disinfection of the exposed E. coli cells. This research will enable more informed decisions about disinfection of aqueous samples where porous PSP are present.     

Electrochemical oxidation of trace organic contaminants in reverse osmosis concentrate using RuO2/IrO2-coated titanium anodes

During membrane treatment of secondary effluent from wastewater treatment plants, a reverse osmosis concentrate (ROC) containing trace organic contaminants is generated. As the latter are of concern, effective and economic treatment methods are required. Here, we investigated electrochemical oxidation of ROC using Ti/Ru_0.7Ir_0.3O₂ electrodes, focussing on the removal of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), specific ultra-violet absorbance at 254 nm (SUVA₂₅₄), and 28 pharmaceuticals and pesticides frequently encountered in secondary treated effluents. The experiments were conducted in a continuously fed reactor at current densities (J) ranging from 1 to 250 A m⁻² anode, and a batch reactor at J = 250 A m⁻². Higher mineralization efficiency was observed during batch oxidation (e.g. 25.1 ± 2.7% DOC removal vs 0% removal in the continuous reactor after applying specific electrical charge, Q = 437.0 A h m⁻³ ROC), indicating that DOC removal is depending on indirect oxidation by electrogenerated oxidants that accumulate in the bulk liquid. An initial increase and subsequent slow decrease in SUVA₂₅₄ during batch mode suggests the introduction of auxochrome substituents (e.g. -Cl, NH₂Cl, -Br, and -OH) into the aromatic compounds. Contrarily, in the continuous reactor ring-cleaving oxidation products were generated, and SUVA₂₅₄ removal correlated with applied charge. Furthermore, 20 of the target pharmaceuticals and pesticides completely disappeared in both the continuous and batch experiments when applying J ≥ 150 A m⁻² (i.e. Q ≥ 461.5 A h m⁻³) and 437.0 A h m⁻³ (J = 250 A m⁻²), respectively. Compounds that were more persistent during continuous oxidation were characterized by the presence of electrophilic groups on the aromatic ring (e.g. triclopyr) or by the absence of stronger nucleophilic substituents (e.g. ibuprofen). These pollutants were oxidized when applying higher specific electrical charge in batch mode (i.e. 1.45 kA h m⁻³ ROC). However, baseline toxicity as determined by Vibrio fischeri bioluminescence inhibition tests (Microtox) was increasing with higher applied charge during batch and continuous oxidation, indicating the formation of toxic oxidation products, possibly chlorinated and brominated organic compounds.     

Influences of humic acid, bicarbonate and calcium on Cr(VI) reductive removal by zero-valent iron

The influences of various geochemical constituents, such as humic acid, HCO₃⁻, and Ca²⁺, on Cr(VI) removal by zero-valent iron (Fe⁰) were investigated in a batch setting. The collective impacts of humic acid, HCO₃⁻, and Ca²⁺ on the Cr(VI) reduction process by Fe⁰ appeared to significantly differ from their individual impacts. Humic acid introduced a marginal influence on Fe⁰ reactivity toward Cr(VI) reduction, whereas HCO₃⁻ greatly enhanced Cr(VI) removal by maintaining the solution pH near neutral. The Cr(VI) reduction rate constants (k_obs) were increased by 37.8% and 78.3%, respectively, with 2 mM and 6 mM HCO₃⁻ in solutions where humic acid and Ca²⁺ were absent. Singly present Ca²⁺ did not show a significant impact to Cr(VI) reduction. However, probably due to the formation of passivating CaCO₃, further addition of Ca²⁺ to HCO₃⁻ containing solutions resulted in a decrease of k_obs compared to solutions containing HCO₃⁻ alone. Ca²⁺ enhanced humic acid adsorption led to a minor decrease of Cr(VI) reduction rates. In Ca²⁺-free solutions, humic acid increased the amount of total dissolved iron to 25 mg/l due to the formation of soluble Fe-humate complexes and stably dispersed fine Fe (oxy)hydroxide colloids, which appeared to suppress iron precipitation. In contrast, the coexistence of humic acid and Ca²⁺ significantly promoted the aggregation of Fe (oxy)hydroxides, with which humic acid co-aggregated and co-precipitated. These aggregates would progressively be deposited on Fe⁰ surfaces and impose long-term impacts on the permeability of PRBs.     

Electrochemical disinfection of Escherichia coli in the presence and absence of primary sludge particulates

Electrochemical (EC) residual disinfection of Escherichia coli (E. coli) in the presence and absence of primary sludge particulates (PSPs) was studied. The kinetics followed a first-order rate law. When PSPs were absent, the EC residual disinfection rate coefficient (k) increased linearly with EC pretreatment energy (E_C, 0–0.63 kWh/m³). However, with 143 mg PSPs/L, k first increased linearly with E_C (0–0.28 kWh/m³) and then decreased linearly with E_C (0.28–0.42 kWh/m³). H₂O₂ was detected during EC pretreatment in PSPs-free samples and the H₂O₂ concentration (C_H) increased with E_C (0–0.83 kWh/m³) linearly. Chloride was detected in PSPs aqueous samples (143 mg PSPs/L) and its concentration (C_C) changed during EC pretreatment: initially, a decrease of C_C was observed when E_C increased from 0 to 0.28 kWh/m³, followed by an increase of C_C when E_C increased 0.28–0.42 kWh/m³. In both cases, k correlated to the initial post-EC chloride concentration (C_CI) in an inverse linear relationship. This two-stage change of C_C and k was caused by a combination of two reactions: anodic oxidation of chloride and the reaction of chloramines with excess chlorine. This paper explains the mechanisms underlying EC residual disinfection in the presence and absence of PSPs, and proposes a feasible strategy for EC disinfection when PSPs are present, an approach that could be useful in the treatment of combined sewage overflow (CSO).     

Characteristics of trihalomethane (THM) production and associated health risk assessment in swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods

Swimming pool water must be treated to prevent infections caused by microbial pathogens. In Korea, the most commonly used disinfection methods include the application of chlorine, ozone/chlorine, and a technique that uses electrochemically generated mixed oxidants (EGMOs). The purpose of this study was to estimate the concentrations of total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) in indoor swimming pools adopting these disinfection methods, and to examine the correlations between the concentrations of THMs and TTHMs and other factors affecting the production of THMs. We also estimated the lifetime cancer risks associated with various exposure pathways by THMs in swimming pools. Water samples were collected from 183 indoor swimming pools in Seoul, Korea, and were analyzed for concentrations of each THM, TOC, and the amount of KMnO₄ consumption. The free chlorine residual and the pH of the pool water samples were also measured. The geometric mean concentrations of TTHMs in the swimming pool waters were 32.9 ± 2.4 µg/L for chlorine, 23.3 ± 2.2 µg/L for ozone/chlorine, and 58.2 ± 1.7 µg/L for EGMO. The concentrations of THMs differed significantly among the three treatment methods, and the correlation between THMs and TTHMs and the other factors influencing THMs varied. The lifetime cancer risk estimation showed that, while risks from oral ingestion and dermal exposure to THMs are mostly less than 10^− 6, which is the negligible risk level defined by the US EPA, however swimmers can be at the greater risk from inhalation exposure (7.77 × 10^− 4-1.36 × 10^− 3).     

Efficacy of reactive mineral-based sorbents for phosphate,bacteria, nitrogen and TOC removal – Column experiment in recirculation batch mode

Two mineral-based materials (Polonite and Sorbulite) intended for filter wells in on-site wastewater treatment were compared in terms of removal of phosphate (PO₄–P), total inorganic nitrogen (TIN), total organic carbon (TOC) and faecal indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli and Enterococci). Using an innovative, recirculating system, septic tank effluent was pumped at a hydraulic loading rate of 3000 L m² d⁻¹ into triplicate bench-scale columns of each material over a 90-day period. The results showed that Polonite performed better with respect to removal of PO₄–P, retaining on average 80% compared with 75% in Sorbulite. This difference was attributed to higher CaO content in Polonite and its faster dissolution. Polonite also performed better in terms of removal of bacteria because of its higher pH value. The total average reduction in E. coli was 60% in Polonite and 45% in Sorbulite, while for Enterococci the corresponding value was 56% in Polonite and 34% in Sorbulite. Sorbulite removed TIN more effectively, with a removal rate of 23%, while Polonite removed 11% of TIN, as well as TOC. Organic matter (measured as TOC) was accumulated in the filter materials but was also released periodically. The results showed that Sorbulite could meet the demand in removing phosphate and nitrogen with reduced microbial release from the wastewater treatment process.     

Effects of hardness and alkalinity on the removal of arsenic(V) from humic acid-deficient and humic acid-rich groundwater by zero-valent iron

The effects of hardness (Ca²⁺) and alkalinity (HCO₃⁻) on arsenic(V) removal from humic acid (HA)-deficient and HA-rich groundwater by zero-valent iron (Fe⁰) were investigated using batch experiments. Arsenic, in general, is removed from groundwater possibly by adsorption and co-precipitation with the iron corrosion products. However, in the co-presence of HCO₃⁻ and Ca²⁺, the removal rate of arsenic increased with increasing concentrations of either Ca²⁺ or HCO₃⁻. It was observed that the removal of arsenic was significantly enhanced by the formation of CaCO₃ as a nucleation seed for the growth of large iron (hydr)oxide particles. In the co-existence of Ca²⁺, HCO₃⁻ and HA, the presence of HA diminished the positive role of Ca²⁺ due to the formation of Fe-humate complexes in solution and delaying of the formation of CaCO₃. As a result, the formation of the large iron (hydr)oxide particles was inhibited in the earlier stage which, in turn, affected the removal of arsenic. However, after the formation of CaCO₃ and the subsequent growth of such particles, the presence of large iron (hydr)oxide particles resulted in the rapid removing of arsenic and Fe-humate by adsorption and/or co-precipitation.     

Effect of bromide on the formation of disinfection by-products during wastewater chlorination

The effect of bromide ion on the formation and speciation of trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) during the chlorination of biologically treated wastewaters was investigated. The experimental results showed that the formation of total THMs and total HAAs during chlorine disinfection increased with increasing bromide levels in wastewater. The formation of CHBr₃ increased nearly linearly with increasing bromide ion levels, while CHCl₂Br and CHClBr₂ increased with increasing bromide concentration from 0 to 3.2 mg L⁻¹ and thereafter remained constant or slightly decreased. Increasing initial bromide levels up to 12.8 mg L⁻¹ resulted in sharp decrease of the concentration of CHCl₃ and chloro- HAAs. The mixed bromochloro- HAAs and bromo-only species replaced chloro- HAAs as the dominated species of HAA with increasing bromide levels. The distribution of monohalogenated, dihalogenated and trihalogenated species of HAAs in chlorinated wastewater at high concentration of bromide (>2 mg L⁻¹) is different from that of drinking/natural water. The values of the bromine incorporation factors, n (Br) and n′ (Br), increased with increasing bromide concentration and remained constant or slightly decreased with increasing contact time under the studied range of bromide ion concentrations during chlorination. Moreover, the bromine incorporation into THMs was higher than that of HAAs with bromide levels ranging from 1.0 to 12.8 mg L⁻¹, indicating the dissimilar formation mechanisms of THMs and HAAs involving bromide.     

A photoelectrocatalytic process that disinfects water contaminated with Mycobacterium kansasii and Mycobacterium avium

Nontuberculous mycobacteria are resistant to conventional water treatment; indeed, they have been recovered from a wide variety of environmental sources. Here, we applied the photoelectrocatalytic technique using a Ti/TiO₂–Ag photoanode to inactivate mycobacteria. For a mycobacteria population of 5 × 10⁸ CFU mL⁻¹, we achieved 99.9 and 99.8% inactivation of Mycobacterium kansasii and Mycobacterium avium with rate constant of 6.2 × 10⁻³ and 4.2 × 10⁻³ min⁻¹, respectively, after 240 min. We compared the proposed method with the photolytic and photocatalytic methods. Using a mycobacteria population of 7.5 × 10⁴ CFU mL⁻¹, the proposed Ti/TiO₂–Ag photoanode elicited total mycobacteria inactivation within 3 min of treatment; the presence of Ag nanoparticles in the electrode provided 1.5 larger degradation rate constant as compared with the Ti/TiO₂ anode (1.75 × 10⁻² for M. kansassi and 1.98 × 10⁻² for M. avium). We monitored the degradation of the metabolites released during cellular lysis by TOC removal, sugar release, chromatography, and mass spectrometry measurements; photoelectrocatalysis and Ti/TiO₂–Ag photoanodes furnished the best results.     

The influence of dissolved and surface-bound humic acid on the toxicity of TiO₂ nanoparticles to Chlorella sp

NOM is likely to coat TiO₂ nanoparticles (nano-TiO₂) discharged into the aquatic environment and influence the nanotoxicity to aquatic organisms, which however has not been well investigated. This study explored the influence of nanoparticle surface-bound humic acid (HA, as a model NOM) as well as dissolved HA on the toxicity of nano-TiO₂ to Chlorella sp., with a specific focus on adhesion of the nanoparticles to the algae. Results showed that nano-TiO₂ and the dissolved HA could inhibit the algal growth with an IC₅₀ of 4.9 and 8.4 mg L⁻¹, respectively, while both dissolved and nanoparticle surface-bound HA could significantly alleviate the algal toxicity of nano-TiO₂. IC₅₀ of nano-TiO₂ increased to 18 mg L⁻¹ in the presence of 5 mg L⁻¹ of the dissolved HA and to 48 mg L⁻¹ as the result of surface-saturation by HA. Co-precipitation experiment and transmission electron microscopy observation revealed that both dissolved and nanoparticle surface-bound HA prevented the adhesion of nano-TiO₂ to the algal cells due to the increased electrosteric repulsion. The generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was significantly limited by the dissolved and nanoparticle surface-bound HA. The prevention of adhesion and inhibition of ROS generation could account for the HA-mitigated nanotoxicity.     

The impact of bromide/iodide concentration and ratio on iodinated trihalomethane formation and speciation

The objective of this study was to evaluate the formation and speciation of iodinated trihalomethanes (I-THMs) from preformed chloramination of waters containing bromide (Br⁻) and iodide (I⁻) at a Br⁻/I⁻ weight ratio of 10:1. The factors investigated were pH, iodide to dissolved organic carbon (I⁻/DOC) ratio, and NOM characteristics, specifically SUVA₂₅₄. A Br⁻/I⁻ ratio of 1:2 was also evaluated to determine the importance of Br⁻ and I⁻ concentrations and ratio on I-THM formation and speciation. Regulated triholamethanes (THMs) were measured alongside I-THMs for a more complete understanding of trihalomethane formation. The results showed that, in general, both I-THM and THM formation increased with decreased pH. Greater formation at lower pH was likely attributed to monochloramine decomposition and the formation of additional oxidants and substituting agents, most notably chlorine. For pH ≥ 7.5, I-THM yield increased with increasing I⁻/DOC ratio and decreasing specific ultraviolet absorbance (SUVA₂₅₄) of the water. The Br⁻/I⁻, Br⁻/DOC and I⁻/DOC ratios were important factors for I-THM and THM speciation. At pH 6, dichloroiodomethane (CHCl₂I) and bromochloroiodomethane (CHBrClI) were the dominant species at the common bromide and iodide levels. For pH ≥ 7.5 and for elevated bromide and iodide levels, iodoform (CHI₃) was always the dominant specie regardless of the Br⁻/I⁻ ratio. The results demonstrated that it is important to examine I-THM formation and speciation at typical Br⁻/I⁻ ratios (∼10) of natural waters, which have often been overlooked in previous investigations, in order to obtain practical and relevant results.     

Disinfection by-product formation following chlorination of drinking water: Artificial neural network models and changes in speciation with treatment

Artificial neural network (ANN) models were developed to predict disinfection by-product (DBP) formation during municipal drinking water treatment using the Information Collection Rule Treatment Studies database complied by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The formation of trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), and total organic halide (TOX) upon chlorination of untreated water, and after conventional treatment, granular activated carbon treatment, and nanofiltration were quantified using ANNs. Highly accurate predictions of DBP concentrations were possible using physically meaningful water quality parameters as ANN inputs including dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration, ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm and one cm path length (UV₂₅₄), bromide ion concentration (Br⁻), chlorine dose, chlorination pH, contact time, and reaction temperature. This highlights the ability of ANNs to closely capture the highly complex and non-linear relationships underlying DBP formation. Accurate simulations suggest the potential use of ANNs for process control and optimization, comparison of treatment alternatives for DBP control prior to piloting, and even to reduce the number of experiments to evaluate water quality variations when operating conditions are changed. Changes in THM and HAA speciation and bromine substitution patterns following treatment are also discussed.