Water Demand Management In The Middle East And North Africa: Observations From the IDRC Forums And Lessons For The Future

Abstract

In 2002 and 2003, Canada's International Development Research Centre, in partnership with other donors, organized four regional Forums to facilitate the exchange of information, results and lessons learned on water demand management (WDM) in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Over 500 decision-makers and water practitioners from 11 countries participated in Forums on wastewater reuse, water valuation, private-public partnerships, and decentralization. A large amount of valuable information on the above topics was gathered, and is available by entering www.idrc.ca/wadimena and clicking on WDM Forums.

The WDM Forums demonstrated that water demand management is occurring in MENA, but without the breadth or strength that is required by the increasingly difficult water situation throughout the region. There is therefore great scope for further analytical work on water demand management and even greater scope for work on ways to promote its adoption in all nations and sectors. This review extracts lessons from the Forums, and suggests short- and long-term entry points for research and practice. The most striking conclusion is that in no MENA nation is WDM the main impetus for action. With wastewater the need to deal with growing volumes of sewage is the main force, and with the other three forums it is the need to reduce government budgets. Future work to promote water demand management in MENA must be oriented towards identifying and strengthening linkages to other water policies or programs, notably by distinguishing the role of WDM as a tool for greater water use effciency from its role as a tool for greater water use equity. Equally important will be efforts to strengthen multi-stakeholder participation, transparency and accountability in policy-making processes and to promote dialogue with water-users, particularly women and the rural poor.     

Human Rights to Water in North Africa and the Middle East: What is New and What is Not; What is Important and What is Not

Given the long history and the multiple interpretations of water rights in the Middle East and North Africa, it is difficult to say anything new without being provocative. The danger is that, in the effort to be provocative, it is easy to become frivolous. Fortunately, it is not possible to deal with any aspect of water, and certainly not human rights to water, without at least passing attention to hydrology and geography, and to economics and political science. Although none of these disciplines gives exact answers, taken together they do impose boundaries to any commentary. Even so, the comments below are tentative. They should be taken in the context of a ‘think piece’, designed to stimulate thinking rather than to provide final answers.     

Reallocating Water Resources in the Middle East through Market Mechanisms

The growing demand for water by countries in the eastern Mediterranean raises the need to explore ways and means to ameliorate water scarcity. Economists have for some time proposed methods of more efficient exploitation of existing water supplies. Specifically, by employing m arket incentive mechanisms to encou rage voluntary water sharing among countries and regions is likely to lead to greater efficiency in water utilization. This paper explores the efficiency gains associated with re-allocating fresh water resources in the eastern Mediterranean through water rights markets. The results suggest that all parties involved might benefit to a greater or lesser degree from trading in water rights.     

Between the Great Rivers: Water in the Heart of the Middle East

The availability of water in the region between the Nile and the Euphrates Rivers varies widely in space and in time. Therefore, water management must focus on risk minimization, not maximum utilization. Water stress in the region stems from: (1) excessive demand for fresh water over the renewable supply; (2) pollution from growing volumes of waste; and (3) the natural flow of key water resources across (or under) international borders. The three forces interact, so any resolution must deal with all, together. Such resolution depends upon many changes, including reduction of the use of fresh water for irrigation, higher prices for water, charges for wastewater, greater efforts at water conservation, and institutions to promote joint, management of international water bodies, both surface and underground. Water may be the limiting factor for development throughout this region, but it is far cheaper to share water than to fight over it.     

Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water in the Arab Countries of the Middle East

The international community has affirmed the human right to water in a number of international treaties, declarations and other documents. Most notably, the United Nations (UN) Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted in November 2002 a General Comment on the Right to Water setting out international standards and obligations relating to the right to water. Based on the UN concept of water as a human right for selected Arab countries in the Middle East (Egypt, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon), the paper analyses if and to what extent these concepts are acknowledged. It aims to identify the scale of knowledge of and commitment to the UN concept in the region, and the main areas of concern in each country regarding water as a human right. The paper summarizes the main challenges facing strategic and coordinated action towards the UN concept of water as a human right, identifies what types of processes and institutions need to be developed to meet the challenges of the concept, and provides best practice examples from countries that have shown innovation. Objectives and priority ideas for activities of non-governmental organizations are recommended.

Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water in the Arab Countries of the Middle East

All authors

Simone Klawitter & Hadeel Qazzaz

https://doi.org/10.1080/07900620500036414

Published online:

22 January 2007

Table 1.?Egypt: evaluation of the UN criteria

CSVDisplay Table

Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water in the Arab Countries of the Middle East

All authors

Simone Klawitter & Hadeel Qazzaz

https://doi.org/10.1080/07900620500036414

Published online:

22 January 2007

Table 2.?Palestine: evaluation of the UN criteria

CSVDisplay Table

Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water in the Arab Countries of the Middle East

All authors

Simone Klawitter & Hadeel Qazzaz

https://doi.org/10.1080/07900620500036414

Published online:

22 January 2007

Table 3.?Jordan: evaluation of the UN criteria

CSVDisplay Table

Water as a Human Right: The Understanding of Water in the Arab Countries of the Middle East

All authors

Simone Klawitter & Hadeel Qazzaz

https://doi.org/10.1080/07900620500036414

Published online:

22 January 2007

Table 4.?Lebanon: evaluation of the UN criteria

CSVDisplay Table

     

南水北调中线水源区水质预报方法研究

提出了对丹江口水库水质进行预报的方案。首先对水源区的污染物总量进行准确测算,其次对进入库区的水量进行预报,最后根据预报水量和预测的污染物总量,采用水库水质数学模型计算预报日期的污染物含量,从而预报坝前水质状况。     

南水北调中线工程水价新论

通过对南水北调中线工程有关水价研究成果的分析,提出了南水北调工程具有公益属性和最大限度引水的理念。在容量水价与计量水价相结合的水价结构基础上,提出了以受水区经济发展水平为依据逐步提升容量水价的设想。以最大限度引水、充分发挥工程效益的理念为指导,应根据水源区和受水区丰枯遭遇情况,对计量水价进行动态管理。     

南水北调东线东平湖水流水质模拟

东平湖作为南水北调东线工程梯级泵站提水的最后一级调蓄湖泊,其水质安全至关重要。借助于地表水建模系统软件SMS,根据东平湖的地形、植被覆盖和调水流向等进行网格划分,建立二维水流水质模型,模拟了20种工况下湖区的水质状况。结果表明:大汶河入湖流量和CODCr浓度越大,调水出湖口CODCr浓度越高,大汶河入湖口污染混合区范围就越大;当大汶河入湖流量小于5m3/s、CODCr浓度小于27mg/L时,调水出湖口CODCr可以达到Ⅲ类水质标准;当大汶河入湖流量小于10m3/s、CODCr浓度小于23mg/L时,调水出湖口CODCr可以达到Ⅲ类水质标准。     

南水北调中线干线工程项目法人合同管理实践

南水北调中线干线工程是新世纪举世瞩目的宏伟工程。合同管理是中线干线工程建设顺利进行的重要保障。阐述了南水北调中线干线工程项目法人成立以来的合同管理的实践。     

Water Policies for the Middle East in the 21st Century: The New Economic Realities

Although many researchers have claimed that the Middle East faces a desperate situation with regard to future water use, few have provided detailed analyses as to why this should be the case. In this paper it is claimed that with the changing nature of the economies of the countries of the region, together with rapid population growth, new water policies are required which recognize the growing significance of the service sector of the economy and the importance of urban communities. These policies should focus on the importance of commercial/industrial systems as the main wealth providers in the 21st century. Detailed analyses of the available water resources reveal that most of the countries of the Middle East will be able to meet the water needs of their citizens up to 2025 without too much difficulty. To achieve this the reallocation of at least some irrigation water to other uses will be necessary. However, the volumes of water needed are in many cases not huge. Three countries, Jordan, Oman and Tunisia, will experience major problems of water supply, but only Jordan can be regarded as approaching a crisis situation. Even here desalinated water could at least alleviate the situation for urban dwellers, though costs would be high.     

双频GPS在南水北调中线配套工程中的应用

随着GPS静态定位技术逐步用于高精度定位中,研究其解算模型显得越来越重要.双频R8 GNSS GPS接收机在南水北调配套工程中的应用表明:在具体应用时除保证有足够的、高精度的已知点外,还要考虑已知控制点所构成的几何图形,同时还应注意起算点的匹配问题;采用七参数转换方法可以很好地完成不同坐标系之间的转换,随着双频逐步取代单频,接收机接收数据的稳定性、可靠性越来越好,二者的有机结合,使静态定位的精度越来越高.     

南水北调中线安都东公路桥下部结构施工

针对南水北调中线安都东公路桥的地质条件及工程特点,公路桥下部结构施工采用包括灌注桩施工、墩柱及系梁施工、桥台施工、盖梁施工等一系列施工措施,确保了施工安全及工程质量。     

南水北调中线干线工程中基于事务的文件归档流程设计

基于传统文档一体化管理基本理论的分析，依据文件生命周期理论和来源原则理论，提出了基于“事务”的文件归档流程设计思想，设计了一套适用于南水北调中线干线工程建设管理局业务需要的文件归档流程，以达到文件与档案两者在管理上的无缝化和程序上的一体化。     

利用东线南水北调工程治理黄河

将黄河下游治理成窄深河槽，能输送高含沙洪水，进而解决防洪问题，是国家“上拦”治黄战略的完善。利用东线南水北调工程向黄河增水，促使窄河道河床冲刷下切，以形成宽河道溯源冲刷。调整南四湖流域以泄为主的水利体系，实行蓄泄结合，促进东线引江淮汛期水优化，使增水刷黄有了水源。小浪底水库拦沙期泄水冲刷，东线南水北调工程通过东平湖向黄河增水冲刷，两种冲刷共同作用，给黄河治理带来了难得的机遇。     

Using Policy and Regulatory Frameworks to Facilitate Water Transitions

There are persistent calls across policy, industry and academia for urban water transitions in order to deliver increased sustainability, liveability and resilience. However, realisation of such transformational change is difficult, and there are a number of undesirable or unsuccessful transition trajectories that can manifest. Drawing on a contemporary stormwater quality management transition in South-East Queensland, Australia, this qualitative research paper provides an empirical exploration of a transition in struggle. The paper examines why and how this transition trajectory unfolded, focusing specifically on the evolution of culture, structure and practice changes from the 1970s to the present-day. The paper makes two scholarly contributions, firstly confirming the dynamic nature of transformational change and indicating the need to design transition initiatives across the culture, structure and practice domains to co-evolve and thereby build a robust and mutually reinforcing transition foundation. The results also reveal the critical role of regulation in providing a safety net for the transition and enabling continued progress even when commitment to policy goals wavers. These results also provide practical insight for practitioners engaged in the implementation of transition processes, and reveal the need for transition advocates to deliberately and proactively engage with regulatory frameworks to embed a novel practice.