Does low self-regard invite victimization?

Two hypotheses were tested. The first was that low self-regard contributes over time to victimization by peers. The second was that behavioral vulnerabilities (e.g., physical weakness, manifest anxiety, poor social skills) are more likely to lead to victimization over time when children have low self-regard than when they are "self-protected" by healthy self-regard. Participants were 189 third-through 7th-grade boys and girls; data were collected in the fall and the spring of the school year. Both hypotheses were supported, especially when self-regard was assessed in terms of self-perceived peer social competence. In addition, the experience of being victimized led to diminished self-regard over time. Poor self-concept may play a central role in a vicious cycle that perpetuates and solidifies a child's status as a victim of peer abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Friendship as a moderating factor in the pathway between early harsh home environment and later victimization in the peer group.

Two prospective investigations of the moderating role of dyadic friendship in the developmental pathway to peer victimization are reported. In Study 1, the preschool home environments (i.e., harsh discipline, marital conflict, stress, abuse, and maternal hostility) of 389 children were assessed by trained interviewers. These children were then followed into the middle years of elementary school, with peer victimization, group social acceptance, and friendship assessed annually with a peer nomination inventory. In Study 2, the home environments of 243 children were assessed in the summer before 1st grade, and victimization, group acceptance, and friendship were assessed annually over the next 3 years. In both studies, early harsh, punitive, and hostile family environments predicted later victimization by peers for children who had a low number of friendships. However, the predictive associations did not hold for children who had numerous friendships. These findings provide support for conceptualizations of friendship as a moderating factor in the pathways to peer group victimization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dimensionality of social victimization: A preliminary investigation.

The purpose of the current study was to examine the dimensionality of social victimization and to assess the relation between social victimization and classmate social support in a sample of 260 students. Confirmatory factor analyses yielded four dimensions of peer victimization: overt, verbal social, and nonverbal social victimization and peer exclusion, providing preliminary evidence that social victimization is multidimensional. Boys reported experiencing greater levels of overt victimization than girls and girls were more likely to endorse experiencing peer exclusion. No gender differences were found with respect to children's experience of verbal and nonverbal forms of social victimization. Results suggest that middle school students were more likely to be the target of verbal social victimization than were elementary school students. Verbal social and nonverbal social victimization as well as peer exclusion demonstrated criterion-related validity. Implications for assessment and intervention for social victimization and suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correlates of victimization in Chinese children's peer groups.

This study reports a cross-sectional investigation of the behavioral and academic correlates of victimization in Chinese children's peer groups. The participants were 296 children (161 boys and 135 girls; mean age?=?11.5 years) from Tianjin, China. Multi-informant assessments (peer nominations, teacher ratings, and self-reports) of peer victimization, aggression, submissiveness-withdrawal, assertiveness-prosociability, and academic functioning were obtained. Structural equation models indicated that peer victimization was associated with poor academic functioning, submissive-withdrawn behavior, aggression, and low levels of assertive-prosocial behavior. These findings suggest that there is considerable similarity in the social processes underlying peer group victimization across Chinese and Western cultural settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers.

This study was designed to determine whether the personal and interpersonal difficulties that characterize victimized children are antecedents of victimization, consequences of victimization, or both. Boys and girls in the 3rd through 7th grades (N?=?173, mean age?=?11.3 years) were assessed on victimization, personal variables (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and physical strength), and interpersonal variables (number of friends and peer rejection). One year later children were assessed again on all variables. Internalizing problems, physical weakness, and peer rejection contributed uniquely to gains in victimization over time. Moreover, initial victimization predicted increases in later internalizing symptoms and peer rejection. These reciprocal influences suggest the existence of a vicious cycle that supports the strong temporal stability of peer victimization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Domain specificity in relationship history, social-information processing, and violent behavior in early adulthood.

Using prospective longitudinal data, we tested 5 hypotheses: (a) that the relation between earlier developmental experiences (peer social rejection and victimization in a romantic relationship) and adult violent behavior toward peers and romantic partners is specific to relationship domain; (b) that the relation between social-information processing (SIP) biases and subsequent violence is also specific to relational domain (romantic partner vs. peer); (c) that the relation between developmental experiences and SIP biases is domain specific; (d) that domain-specific SIP mediates the impact of earlier developmental experiences on later violent behavior; and (e) that harsh parenting early in life is a domain-general predictor of SIP and later violent behavior. Harsh parenting was assessed through interviews with parents when their children were age 5 years. Classroom sociometric assessments indexing peer rejection were completed in elementary school, and self-report of victimization by romantic partners was provided at age 18 years. SIP was assessed via interview at age 22 years, and violent behavior was measured via self- and partner report at ages 23 years and 24 years. Structural equation analyses revealed specificity in the relation between developmental experiences and violence and in the prediction to and from SIP in the peer domain, but not in the romantic-relationship domain. The impact of early harsh treatment on violence toward peers was mediated by SIP biases in the peer domain. These findings provide support for domain specificity in the peer domain but for cross-domain generality in the romantic relationship domain in the development of violent behavior in early adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral correlates of peer exclusion and victimization of East Asian American and European American young adolescents.

The present study examined behavioral correlates of peer exclusion and victimization among sixth-grade European and East Asian American young adolescents, with an emphasis on aggressive and socially withdrawn behaviors. Concurrent and short-term longitudinal (over 1 academic year) associations between behavior and the distinct forms of peer adversity (victimization/exclusion) were assessed. Results varied by gender and ethnicity and suggested that social withdrawal was associated with exclusion, whereas aggression was associated with victimization. Interactions between gender and aggression predicted peer victimization after controlling for prior victimization. Extremely aggressive girls were more likely to be victimized than nonaggressive girls. Interactions between gender, ethnicity, and behavior predicted exclusion, controlling for prior exclusion. Extremely withdrawn European American girls were less excluded than nonwithdrawn European American girls. Universals emerged in the prediction of exclusion from withdrawal for all other groups and from aggression for all four groups. These results highlight the importance of considering ethnicity and gender in the links between different behaviors and the distinct forms of peer adversity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual risk and social risk as interacting determinants of victimization in the peer group.

This study evaluated the hypothesis that the behavior problems that place children at risk for victimization by peers are associated with victimization primarily when children are also at social risk for victimization. Social risk was defined as lacking supportive friends or as being rejected by the peer group. Participants were 229 boys and girls in the 3rd through 7th grades (M age?=?11 years 2 months). As predicted, behavior problems (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and physical weakness) were more strongly related to victimization when children had few friends, had friends who were incapable of fulfilling a protective function (e.g., were physically weak), or were rejected by peers than when children had more friends, had friends capable of defending them, or were better liked by peers. Results illustrate the principle that individual risk variables depend on social context for expression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Victimization by peers: Associations with children's reports of mother–child interaction.

Children who are chronically victimized by peers are at risk for personal difficulties. This study examined whether victimization is associated with mother–child interaction at home. Preadolescents (N?=?184; mean age?=?11.7 years) reported on their mother"s child-rearing practices and on how they cope during conflicts with their mother. Peers reported on victimization at school. Sex-specific links between perceived family interaction and peer victimization were found. For boys, victimization was associated with perceived maternal overprotectiveness, especially when boys reported reacting with fear during mother–child conflict. For girls, victimization was associated with perceived maternal rejection and with girls" reports of aggressive coping during mother–child conflict. Results support the theory that parenting that hinders children"s development of gender-salient competencies (autonomy for boys and communion for girls) places children at risk for peer victimization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrating research and practice: An ecological analysis of the dynamics behind bullying and victimization.

Reviews the book, Peer harassment in school: The plight of the vulnerable and victimized edited by J. Juvonen and S. Graham (see record 2001-00685-000). Peer Harassment in School: The Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized is a timely volume dedicated to understanding the correlates and consequences of chronic victimization in children and adolescents. The editors, Juvonen and Graham, define peer harassment as "victimization that entails face-to-face confrontation (e.g., physical aggression, verbal abuse, nonverbal gesturing) or social manipulation through a third party (e.g., social ostracism, spreading rumors)" (Juvonen & Graham, 2001, p. xiii). They use the term "harassment" as synonymous with "victimization" throughout the volume. The chapter authors include leading experts in peer harassment from both the United States and other industrialized countries (i.e., Canada, Australia, Norway, Great Britain). The book's emphasis on research on victims rather than research on bullies is important for school-based intervention programs, which have historically focused on how to intervene with aggressive students. The book further underscores the complex interconnections that exist among bullies, victims, and onlookers to the bullying events. Peer Harassment in School is a timely, theory-driven, and well-researched book that reviews the empirical evidence on methodological, developmental, social, and ecological factors associated with peer harassment. The volume is a "must-read" for any school practitioner and/or researcher interested in understanding the complexity behind victimization in children and adolescents. Juvonen and Graham draw on more than two decades of their collective researching of social phenomena in school-aged youth (Juvonen, 1991; Graham & Folkes, 1990; Graham & Juvonen, 1998) to produce an important book that advances conceptual models for peer victimization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond the Individual: The Impact of Ethnic Context and Classroom Behavioral Norms on Victims' Adjustment.

With a sample of 1,630 sixth-grade students from 77 classrooms, the authors used hierarchical linear modeling to examine how ethnicity within context and classroom social disorder influenced the association between peer victimization and social-psychological adjustment (loneliness and social anxiety). Victimized students in classrooms where many classmates shared their ethnicity reported feeling the most loneliness and social anxiety. Additionally, classroom-level social disorder served as a moderator such that the association between victimization and anxiety was stronger in classrooms with low social disorder. Both findings were interpreted as evidence that problem behavior deviating from what is perceived as normative in a particular context heightens maladjustment. The authors discuss implications for studying ethnicity and classroom behavioral norms as context variables in peer relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social functioning and adjustment in Canadian-born children with Chinese and European backgrounds.

The purpose of the study was to examine social functioning and adjustment in peer context in Chinese Canadian and European Canadian children. A sample of elementary school children participated in the study. Data on social functioning, peer acceptance and rejection, and victimization were collected from peer assessments and sociometric nominations. The results indicated that Chinese Canadian children were viewed by peers as less aggressive-disruptive than European Canadian children. Chinese Canadian girls, but not boys, were more shy-sensitive than their European Canadian counterparts. Sociability was associated with peer acceptance, whereas aggression was associated with peer rejection and victimization. Shyness was associated with peer relationship difficulties more evidently in European Canadian children than in Chinese Canadian children. These results indicate the relevance of ethnic background to children's peer social experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting behaviors and parent-child relationships: correlates of peer victimization in kindergarten?

This study examined features of parenting behavior and the parent-child relationship as correlates of peer victimization in young children. A sample of 197 kindergartners (94 girls and 103 boys) and their primary caregivers were videotaped in their homes while engaging in multiple interactional tasks, and peer victimization data were gathered on children as they began kindergarten. The video-recorded interaction data were used to create measures of parenting behavior (e.g., intrusive demandingness, responsiveness) and relationship quality (i.e., intense closeness), which were examined as predictors of peer victimization. High intrusive demandingness and low responsiveness were associated with peer victimization in both boys and girls, and parent-child relationships characterized by intense closeness were associated with higher levels of peer victimization in boys. Results are discussed in terms of the role that caregiver socialization plays in the development of child behaviors that may increase children's risk for peer victimization.     

Self-regard as a function of environmental demands in chronic schizophrenics.

Explored the effect of the social setting upon the self-regard of chronic schizophrenics. It was hypothesized that self-regard is related to the degree to which a person is able to meet the demands and expectations of his social setting. 2 groups of comparable chronic schizophrenics were compared. Group 1 was hospitalized and Group 2 attended a day treatment center. Hilden's Q sort procedure was used to obtain a measure of self-regard. Results revealed that the hospitalized group had higher self-regard than the nonhospitalized group. The findings were interpreted as shedding more light on the importance of the situational variable in the development and maintenance of self-regard. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotion dysregulation as a mechanism linking peer victimization to internalizing symptoms in adolescents.

Peer victimization experiences represent developmentally salient stressors among adolescents and are associated with the development of internalizing symptoms. However, the mechanisms linking peer victimization to adolescent psychopathology remain inadequately understood. This study examined emotion dysregulation as a mechanism linking peer stress to changes in internalizing symptoms among adolescents in a longitudinal design. Peer victimization was assessed with the Revised Peer Experiences Questionnaire (M. J. Prinstein, J. Boergers, & E. M. Vernberg, 2001) in a large (N = 1,065), racially diverse (86.6% non-White) sample of adolescents 11–14 years of age. Emotion dysregulation and symptoms of depression and anxiety were also assessed. Structural equation modeling was used to create a latent construct of emotion dysregulation from measures of discrete emotion processes and of peer victimization and internalizing symptoms. Peer victimization was associated with increased emotion dysregulation over a 4-month period. Increases in emotion dysregulation mediated the relationship between relational and reputational, but not overt, victimization and changes in internalizing symptoms over a 7-month period. Evidence for a reciprocal relationship between internalizing symptoms and relational victimization was found, but emotion dysregulation did not mediate this relationship. The implications for preventive interventions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Victims of peer aggression.

Developed a peer nomination scale to assess the degree to which children are subjected to direct physical and verbal abuse by peers. Ss were 165 boys and girls in the third through sixth grades. About 10% of the children could be classified as extremely victimized. Age and sex differences in victimization were nonsignificant. Children's victimization scores were uncorrelated with their aggression scores (also assessed by peer nominations), were negatively correlated with peer acceptance, and were positively correlated with peer rejection. When children's victimization and aggression scores were treated as dual predictors of peer rejection, over half of the variance in peer rejection could be accounted for. Implications of the fact that a small group of children consistently serve as targets of peer aggression are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sociability with peer and mother during the first year.

32 infants were videotaped with their mothers and a peer 9 times (3 visits at 6, 9, and 12 mo). Three hypotheses concerning the social behaviors were examined: that interactions with mother and peer differ in characteristic activities and functions, that interactions with peers grow out of earlier mother–infant interactions, and that behaviors with the 2 partners are characterized by underlying consistency. Support for the 1st and 3rd hypotheses was found. Ss were more likely to look at and vocalize to the peer but were more likely to touch the mother. A negative correlation was found between the frequencies of Ss' touching mother and touching peer. The absence of toys affected the 2 systems similarly, and similar patterns of growth were apparent over time. Significant positive correlations were found between the frequencies of the smiles and vocalizations to the 2 partners. In light of these results, a model is proposed in which underlying infant sociability is reflected somewhat differentially with mother and peer. Reasons for the lack of support of the precursor hypothesis are explored. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting behaviors and parent–child relationships: Correlates of peer victimization in kindergarten?

This study examined features of parenting behavior and the parent–child relationship as correlates of peer victimization in young children. A sample of 197 kindergartners (94 girls and 103 boys) and their primary caregivers were videotaped in their homes while engaging in multiple interactional tasks, and peer victimization data were gathered on children as they began kindergarten. The video-recorded interaction data were used to create measures of parenting behavior (e.g., intrusive demandingness, responsiveness) and relationship quality (i.e., intense closeness), which were examined as predictors of peer victimization. High intrusive demandingness and low responsiveness were associated with peer victimization in both boys and girls, and parent–child relationships characterized by intense closeness were associated with higher levels of peer victimization in boys. Results are discussed in terms of the role that caregiver socialization plays in the development of child behaviors that may increase children's risk for peer victimization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Community violence exposure and children's social adjustment in the school peer group: The mediating roles of emotion regulation and social cognition.

This study reports a cross-sectional investigation of the relation between community violence exposure and peer group social maladjustment in 285 inner-city children in Grades 4–6 (mean age?=?10.3 years). Children completed an inventory assessing exposure to community violence through witnessing and through direct victimization. A peer nomination inventory was then administered to assess social adjustment with peers (aggression, peer rejection, and bullying by peers). In addition, social-cognitive biases and emotion regulation capacities were examined as potential mediators. Analyses indicated that violent victimization was associated with negative social outcomes through the mediation of emotion dysregulation. Witnessed violence was linked only to aggressive behavior. Social information processing, rather than emotion dysregulation, appeared to mediate this association. These results demonstrate that violence exposure is linked to multiple levels of behavioral and social maladjustment and suggest that there are distinct patterns of risk associated with different forms of exposure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relational and physical forms of peer victimization in preschool.

Recent studies of peer victimization have demonstrated the importance of studying relational as well as physical forms of peer maltreatment for understanding children's social-psychological adjustment problems. Studies in this area have been limited thus far by a focus on school-age children (9–12-year olds). Given the significance of early identification of children's social difficulties for intervention and prevention efforts, this research was designed to assess relational and physical peer victimization among preschool-age children (3–5-year-olds). Results indicated that boys were significantly more physically victimized than girls whereas girls were more relationally victimized. Both relational and physical victims experienced greater adjustment problems than did their peers. Relational victimization contributed unique information about adjustment beyond that provided by physical victimization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)