Additive effects of task difficulty and goal setting on subsequent task performance.

Notes that the setting of difficult goals has been consistently found to improve performance in both laboratory and field settings; however, the setting of difficult goals has sometimes been confounded with the difficulty of the task especially in field studies where the difficulty of goals and more complex tasks often co-vary. The present study investigated the relative contribution of goal setting and task difficulty to performance on chess problems. Employing a 3 * 3 factorial design, 82 chess-playing undergraduates attempted to solve either easy, moderately difficult, or difficult chess problems, after accepting either an easy, moderately difficult, or difficult goal. Results show that both goals and task difficulty contributed additively to task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of task importance and publicness on the relation between goal difficulty and performance.

In a laboratory study using undergraduate students (N?=?200), perceived task importance was found to moderate the relationship between goal level and performance. Moreover, participants performed better when both the goal and performance were public rather than anonymous. These findings suggest that by manipulating task importance and publicness of performance, it is possible to influence the impact that the difficulty of specific goals have on performance. The results are consistent with our hypotheses that the motivation to preserve one's self-image and the motivation to preserve one's public-image are two factors that determine effort and persistence devoted to assigned goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of task difficulty, goal setting, and strategy on performance of a heuristic task.

Investigated the relative contribution of goal setting and task difficulty to performance on a heuristic computer task with 128 undergraduates who attempted to solve either easy or difficult maze puzzles. Each S was assigned either an easy, moderate, or difficult goal or told to do his/her best. One month prior to the experiment, Ss responded to the Neuroticism scale of the Eysenck Personality Inventory to collect data on arousal. Data were also collected on acceptance, commitment, task complexity, and performance. Results show that both goals and task difficulty affected task performance, arousal, and perceptions of task complexity. A linear, rather than curvilinear, relationship was found between task arousal and performance. Contrary to prior research by G. A. Bassett (see record 1980-33518-001), results also show that, when the task was difficult, the setting of a difficult goal led to significantly lower performance. The decrease in performance in the difficult goal condition was attributed to the variation in performance strategy employed by these Ss as opposed to other Ss. It is argued that the setting of difficult goals may not be an effective motivational strategy when a heuristic, rather than algorithmic, solution is needed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of physiological arousal level, frustration, and task complexity on performance.

This paper investigates the effects of initial heart-rate level, frustration, and task complexity on digit-symbol performance. Low (LD) and high (HD) heart-rate Ss worked on a digit-symbol problem immediately before and after a frustration manipulation which raised heart rate about 20 beats/min. The results indicated that HD Ss achieved higher initial performance scores than LD Ss on tasks of relatively low complexity; however, following frustration LD Ss manifested a significantly greater increment in performance than HD Ss. The latter group showed a trend toward a decrement in performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Need for cognition, task difficulty, and the formation of performance expectancies.

In the present article, the authors analyze how performance expectancies are generated and how they affect actual performance. The authors predicted that task difficulty would affect performance expectancies only when cognitive motivation (i.e., need for cognition [NFC]) and cognitive capacity are high. This should be the case because analyzing task difficulty is a process requiring cognitive capacity as well as cognitive motivation. The findings supported the expected NFC × Difficulty interaction for the formation of performance expectancies (Study 1, Study 2), but only when cognitive capacity was high (Study 2). The authors also predicted that expectancies would affect actual performance only if the task is difficult and if task difficulty is taken into account when the expectancy is generated. This hypothesis was supported: Significant relations between performance expectancies and actual performance were found only for difficult tasks and for participants higher in NFC. Studies 5 and 6 showed clear evidence that the NFC × Difficulty interaction could not be explained by differences in the use of task-specific self-concepts. The findings were robust across academic, social, and physical tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of learning goal difficulty level and cognitive ability on performance.

The relationship between the difficulty level of a learning goal and a person's (N = 146) performance on a task that required the acquisition of knowledge to perform effectively was examined. Multiple hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the higher the learning goal, the higher the person's performance. Cognitive ability and goal commitment also positively affected performance. The results showed that the person's cognitive ability moderated the learning goal-performance relationship. Contrary to previous research findings on performance goals for tasks that are straightforward for people, the performance of individuals lower in cognitive ability was more positively affected by the setting of a difficult learning goal than was the case for people higher in cognitive ability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional arousal and task performance.

42 male Ss were exposed to either a hostility inducing or a neutral confederate and then tested on both stereotyped and nonstereotyped forms of a simple lever pressing task. As predicted, emotional arousal (hostility) had no effect on performance of the relatively stereotyped task but led to a considerable though transitory drop in performance after changeover to a nonstereotyped task requiring concentration. This result corroborates in a laboratory setting previous reports of research done in the field. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of goal acceptance on the relationship of goal difficulty to performance.

Tested the hypotheses that goal acceptance moderates the relationship of goal difficulty to task performance as follows: (a) The relationship is positive and linear for accepted goals; (b) it is negative and linear if the goal is rejected; and thus, (c) slope reversal from positively to negatively linear relationships is associated with transition from positive to negative values of goal acceptance. The experiment was a within-S design, allowing for high variance in acceptance, with technicians and engineers (21–50 yrs of age) divided at random into a 2-phase experimental condition (n?=?104) with specific goal difficulty gradually increasing from Trial 1 to 7 and a control group (n?=?36) with the general instructions to "do your best." Instructions for Phase 2 differed from Phase 1 in that Ss were instructed to reassess their acceptance of difficult goals. The task consisted of determining, within 2-min trials, how many digits or letters in a row were the same as the circled one to the left of each row. Results support the hypotheses. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Importance of participative goal setting and anticipated rewards on goal difficulty and job performance.

In Study 1, 76 engineers/scientists either participated in the setting of, or were assigned, specific behavioral goals during their performance appraisal. Participative goal setting resulted in more difficult goals being set than was the case when the goals were assigned. Perceptions of goal difficulty, however, were not significantly different in the 2 goal-setting conditions. In Study 2, the analysis of the performance data collected 6 mo later on 132 engineers/scientists revealed main effects for both goal setting and anticipated rewards. Only participative goal setting led to significantly higher performance than a "do your best" and a control group condition. There was no significant difference between the performance of the latter 2 conditions despite the fact that the individuals in the do-your-best group received knowledge of results. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of task difficulty and anxiety on hesitations in speech.

Investigated effects of cognitive and emotional-motivational variables on measures of verbal output, verbal rate, and speech hesitations. Speakers (24 male undergraduates) differing in audience sensitivity and n-exhibition (an attention-seeking disposition) were presented under relatively nonstressful conditions with 3 verbal tasks of varying difficulty. This procedure was repeated in a 2nd session. All dependent measures were affected by the task difficulty variable, the relationship generally being linear and positive. In addition, self-ratings of concurrent anxiety were found to relate positively to task difficulty. Predispositional anxiety (audience sensitivity) was related to the unfilled pause data, verbal rate, and verbal output. Intraindividual, intersession stabilities of the dependent measures were substantially high. Interrelationships between the dependent variables were also examined. (French summary) (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of aging and task difficulty on divided attention performance.

We report two experiments that compare the performance of young and older adults on perceptual-motor tasks involving division of attention. Previous studies have shown older people to be especially penalized by divided attention situations, but the generality of this finding was recently challenged by Somberg and Salthouse (1982). The present study was conducted to investigate the possibility that age differences in dual-task performance are amplified by an increase in the difficulty of the constituent tasks, where difficulty was manipulated by varying the central, cognitive nature of the tasks (Experiment 1) or the degree of choice involved (Experiment 2). With the present tasks, strong evidence was found for an age-related decrement in divided attention performance. Contrary to our original expectations, however, it does not seem that division of attention presents some especial difficulty to older people. Rather, division of attention is one of several equivalent ways to increase overall task complexity. In turn, age differences are exaggerated as tasks are made more complex. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Joint effects of assigned goal level and incentive structure on task performance: A laboratory study.

Tested the effects of goal level and type of incentive system on the task performance of 124 undergraduates in an arithmetic task. The assigned goal level was either easy, moderately difficult, or difficult to reach. ANOVA results supported the hypothesis that in high goal conditions, Ss' performance would be differentially affected by the type of incentive structure. In the piece-rate incentive system, Ss' performance was significantly higher in high goal conditions than in moderate or low goal conditions. Conversely, in the bonus incentive system, performance in high goal conditions was lower than in moderate or low goal conditions. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived performance norm as a mediator in the effect of assigned goal on personal goal and task performance.

We conducted two experiments to test the hypothesis that assigned goals affect personal goals and task performance, in part, by providing normative information about the task. Normative information inferred from the goal was expected to influence performance expectancy and performance valence, which, in turn, would affect personal goal and, ultimately, performance. In Experiment 1, 60 undergraduate students were assigned performance goals of varying difficulty on a brainstorming task, and measures of perceived norm, performance expectancy, performance valence, personal goal, and task performance were obtained. Results of analyses of covariance and path analysis were generally consistent with the proposed cognitive mediation model. In Experiment 2, information about the performance norm was manipulated independently of goal difficulty for 135 undergraduates working on the same brainstorming task. Results of similar analyses revealed that (a) the effects of goal difficulty observed in Experiment 1 were attenuated by the presentation of normative information and (b) performance norm had significant effects on all of the dependent variables. The findings have implications for the integration of motivation theories and for the use of goal setting as a motivational technique. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol's effects on physiological arousal and self-reported affect and sensations.

60 male normal drinkers (undergraduates) were instructed that they would receive an alcoholic, nonalcoholic, or an unidentified beverage that would be alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Half the Ss in each instruction group consumed an alcoholic beverage; the other half consumed a non-alcoholic beverage. Self-reports of affect (Mood Adjective Check List, Multiple Affect Adjective Check List) and bodily sensations and measures of pulse rate and skin conductance were obtained at baseline and during the ascending and descending phases of the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) function. Analysis of covariance showed that Ss who consumed alcohol reported higher levels of positive affects and sensations and lower levels of depression than Ss who did not consume alcohol. The instructional manipulation had a limited effect. Self-reports of affect and sensations were most affected by type of beverage consumed; sensations were also rated higher during the ascending than during the descending phase of the BAC. Physiological measures were influenced by instructions and beverage. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The moderating role of goal commitment on the goal difficulty–performance relationship: A meta-analytic review and critical reanalysis.

Despite the nearly unanimous view that goal commitment is a vital component of goal setting, few studies have empirically assessed its hypothesized role as a moderator of the goal–performance relationship. In addition, those studies that have examined the moderating effects of goal commitment have presented inconsistent conclusions. To clarify this situation, a meta-analysis was conducted to examine the overall strength of the moderating effect of goal commitment. The results indicated that the Goal Difficulty X Goal Commitment effect accounted for less than 3% of the variance in task performance. Additionally, the type of goal commitment measure used (self-report vs. discrepancy) was a significant moderator of this relationship. Measurement issues and directions for future conceptualizations of the goal commitment construct are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of self-induced mood states on behavior and physiological arousal

The effects of reading emotionally loaded statements on behavioral tasks and physiological measures were investigated. Statements were constructed to arouse elation, depression, or neutrality. Ss were both pre- and posttested on Writing Speed, Reaction Time, Decision Time, and Spontaneous Verbalizations. Base rates were obtained for heart rate and galvanic skin response. Elation Ss significantly outperformed both Neutral and Depression Ss on the Reaction Time task. Scores for Neutral Ss fell between those of Elation and Depression Ss on three of the four behavioral measures. No significant differneces were found on the physiological measures.     

Effect of fear arousal upon task performance and verbal behavior.

80 undergraduate females were classified as being either high or low in fear of speaking in front of a group. ? were told that they were to speak following a task; the remaining Ss did the task without expecting to speak. All Ss spoke about the task for 1 min. immediately following the task. Experimental Ss took significantly longer to perform the task, and naive judges were able to detect differences in the verbal productions of the groups. Formal aspects of S's verbal productions also discriminated among high- and low-fear Ss. Implications for theory and importance of assessing different types of behavior are briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative task difficulty and transfer of training in skilled performance.

Summarized and analyzed critically are recent studies dealing directly or indirectly with the influence of the relative difficulty of initial and final tasks on transfer of training in skilled performance. Methods used to vary task difficulty are discussed under stimulus variations, response variations, and variations in control-display linkage. Task difficulty is examined in terms of the isolation and control of task variables, of task difficulty and performance standards, and of the U (shaped curve) hypothesis. 23 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The power motive, group conflict, and physiological arousal.

Tested D. C. McClelland's (1976; see also PA, Vol 68:12164) theory that persons high in power motivation experience high physiological reactivity to "power stress." A group of 192 male undergraduates, from which 64 group leaders were selected by means of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as being high or low in the need for power (n Power), participated. The 128 Ss not designated as leaders served as group members. The experiment was a 2?×?2 factorial design, in which group conflict (high, low) served as the 1st factor and leader's n Power served as the 2nd factor, which yielded 4 conditions. Group discussion focused on a controversial proposal to market a new sunlamp. The group leader was wired for electromyographic (EMG) recordings and at the end of the experiment completed R. E. Thayer's (1967, 1970) Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List. Analysis of variance for the EMG data disclosed a main effect for condition of the experiment and a marginally significant interaction effect. Consistent with McClelland's theory, the greatest EMG reactivity occurred in high-n-Power leaders subjected to group conflict. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of self-esteem, success–failure, and self-consciousness on task performance.

Research has demonstrated that task performance of low self-esteem individuals (low SEs) suffers in the presence of self-focusing stimuli (e.g., a mirror). The present study determined if such stimuli must inevitably have adverse effects on low SEs. It was reasoned that if low SEs were provided with success feedback from a previous task, then the nature of their self-consciousness would be altered on a subsequent task. Specifically, low SEs should attend more to positive and less anxiety-provoking aspects of themselves than would low SEs who received failure feedback from the previous task. Under the former condition, low SEs' subsequent task performance was expected to improve. For high SEs, who typically perform well, success–failure feedback was expected to have little effect on subsequent performance. 90 undergraduates high and low in chronic self-esteem received false success or failure feedback from a task and completed a concept formation task in either the presence or absence of a mirror. Whereas high SEs performed equally well following success or failure, low SEs in the success condition performed significantly better than low SEs in the failure condition. This Self-Esteem?×?Prior Feedback interaction was significant in the presence of the mirror but not its absence. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)