In vitro digestibility of processed and fermented soya bean,cowpea and maize

Tropical legumes, ie soya bean and cowpea, were pre‐treated and subsequently fermented using pure cultures of Rhizopus spp. Impact of soaking, cooking and fermentation of the legumes on their digestibility was determined using an in vitro digestion method. Processing of white maize included, amongst others, natural lactic acid fermentation, cooking and saccharification using barley malt. An in vitro method was standardised to carry out comparative determinations of the dry matter digestibility of cereal and legume food samples as a function of processing conditions, without attempting to exactly mimic gastrointestinal digestion. Using this method based on upper digestive tract digestion, it was observed that digestibility of the legumes increased during cooking and fermentation. Cooking improved the total digestibility of both soya bean and cowpea from 36.5 to 44.8% and from 15.4 to 40.9% respectively. Subsequent fungal fermentation increased total digestibility only by about 3% for both soya bean and cowpea. Digestibility was also influenced by fungal strain and fermentation time. Cooking and subsequent saccharification using malt almost tripled total digestibility of white maize from 25.5 to 63.6%, whereas lactic fermentation of maize had no effect on in vitro dry matter digestibility. Although total digestibility of cooked legumes was only slightly improved by mould fermentation (3% for both soya bean and cowpea), the level of water‐soluble dry matter of food samples increased during fermentation with Rhizopus oryzae from 7.0 up to 27.3% for soya bean and from 4.3 up to 24.1% for cowpea. These fermented products could therefore play a role as sources of easily available nutrients for individuals suffering from digestive disorders. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

Fermentation alters antioxidant capacity and polyphenol distribution in selected edible legumes

This study was designed to investigate the influences of fermentation by naturally occurring bacteria on legumes and lactic acid bacteria on antioxidant capacity and polyphenols in both soluble and bound extracts of eight common edible legumes, including black cow gram, mottled cowpea, speckled kidney bean, lentil, small rice bean, small runner bean and two soya beans. Fermentation had varying effects on the antioxidant capacity of soluble and bound extracts in different edible legumes, with fermented mottled cowpea, speckled kidney bean and small rice bean showing increased total antioxidant capacity. In addition, fermentation in general enhanced total phenolic content in all the selected legumes, which could be associated with the biotransformation between soluble phenolics and the release of bound phenolics induced by micro‐organisms involved in the fermentation process. Phenolic compounds, such as catechin, were increased in fermented mottled cowpea. Overall, fermentation could increase the bioavailability of legume polyphenols and fermented legume powders rich in antioxidant polyphenols can be used to develop novel functional foods.     

Antioxidant properties of some commonly consumed and underutilized tropical legumes

The antioxidant properties of some commonly consumed [cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)] and underutilized [pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) and African yam bean (Sphenostylis sternocarpa)] legumes were assessed with regard to their Vitamin C, total phenol, and phytate content, as well as antioxidant activity as typified by their reducing power and free radical scavenging ability. The Vitamin C content of the cowpeas ranged from 0.5 to 0.9 mg/100 g, while that of underutilized legumes were 0.9 mg/100 g for pigeon pea and 0.8 mg/100 g for African yam beans. The phenol content of the cowpeas were 0.3–1.0 mg/g, African yam bean had 0.7 mg/g total phenols, while pigeon pea contained 0.4 (white) and 1.2 mg/g (brown) total phenol content, respectively. The phytate content of all the legumes [cowpea (2.0–2.9%), pigeon pea (2.0–2.4%), African yam beans (2.4%)] analyzed were generally high, while the reducing power and free radical scavenging ability for all the legumes were very low except in African yam beans (23.6%), cowpea brown (29.9%), and pigeon pea brown (54.5%) that had a relatively high free radical scavenging ability. Therefore, one of the commonly consumed cowpea V. unguiculata (brown) and underutilized legumes C. cajan (brown) and S. sternocarpa could be considered as a functional food due to their relatively higher antioxidant activity (free radical scavenging ability and redox potential) which could be as a result of their relative higher total phenol content.     

Imitation milks from Cicer arietinum (L.), Vigna unguiculata (L.) walpers and Vigna radiata (L.) wilczek and other legumes

Vegetable milks were prepared in the laboratory from mung bean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek], cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walpers] and chick-pea [Cicer arietinum (L.)] by homogenisation of a filtered aqueous extract of the ground legume with soya bean oil. Emulsions stable to pasteurisation were made from the first two. Pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.)] and black gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper)] were found to be unsuitable as bases for milks prepared by simple processing. The nitrogen, oil, sugar and ash contents of the first three legumes, and of milks prepared from them, were determined. Imitation milks are intended to resemble animal milks nutritionally, and whilst the contents of potassium and phosphorus were acceptable, these vegetable milks were low in sodium, calcium and zinc. The trypsin inhibitory activity, whilst low in comparison with soya milk, was partially stable to pasteurisation. The amino acid composition indicated that it would be desirable to complement legume proteins with cereal proteins to prepare vegetable milks.     

Soya-yoghurt starter culture development from fermented tropical vegetables

The development of soya-yoghurt starter culture from fermented tropical vegetables was initiated. Soya milk fortified with 10 g litre^?1 sucrose was sterilised (121°C for 15 min) and inoculated with the exudate of fermented tropical vegetables. Acid production in the soya milk medium during incubation at 42°C for 5 h was evaluated and compared with cows' milk based cultures. Aroma of the soya milk based and cows' milk based cultures was also compared. Cultures derived from fermented cassava and corn separately reduced soya milk pH from 6′8 to 43 and 45, and significantly greater culture activity was observed in soya milk than in cows' milk. The culture from corn produced the most acceptable yoghurt-like aroma in soya milk while that from African oil bean seed produced the least acceptable aroma. The consumer-acceptable mild buttermilk-like aroma of yoghurt was not produced in soya milk or cows' milk by the cultures evaluated.     

Natural fermentation of lentils. Functional properties and potential in breadmaking of fermented lentil flour

The effects of fermentation on functional properties of lentil flour and rheological properties of doughs and breads produced from blends of wheat and fermented lentil flour were studied. Lentil protein solubility was higher at neutral pH than acid pH; the lowest and highest protein solubility values were observed at pH 4.0 and pH 7.0, respectively. Water hydration capacity and fat binding capacity of fermented lentil flour (FLF) were always higher than those of non-fermented lentil flour (NFLF), irrespective of fermentation temperature (28–42°C) and flour concentration (79–221 g/l). Emulsifying properties of NFLF were similar to the properties of other legume flours in the range used in experiment. In contrast, the emulsion capacity and stability of FLF were very low and flours fermented at 42°C did not even form emulsion. Rheological properties of doughs made from wheat-fermented lentil blends were similar to those from wheat flour with the addition of other legume flours such as pea and bean. Good quality breads were produced at 2.5 to 10% NFLF and FLF supplementation (except for bread with 10% FLF addition which was middle quality).     

Selection of annual legumes for incorporation into rice farming systems

Legumes are often recommended for inclusion into rice farming systems to provide organic matter and nitrogen. Thus, a study evaluated the growth, yields and nitrogen dynamics of four popular legumes, namely Sesbania, Mungbean, Cowpea and French bean using ¹⁵N, when grown in a rice soil. Sesbania produced the highest quantity of nitrogen-rich dry matter. In contrast, French beans produced the lowest quantity, which was low in nitrogen. Dry matter contents of other legumes available for incorporation were greater than in French beans. Nitrogen dynamics illustrated the very high nitrogen fixing capacity of sesbania, while the efficiency of symbiotic fixation was low in French beans. The net nitrogen balance of sesbania was high, followed by cowpea and mungbean. The study illustrated the benefits of using sesbania for the purpose of adding green manure and nitrogen. If a food legume is to be used, species such as cowpea or mungbean was more suitable to achieve the stated objectives than French bean, which produced the highest economic yield.     

Accumulation and quality of storage protein in developing cowpea,mung bean and soya bean seeds

This study was carried out to compare the time course of laying down seed storage protein in three legumes viz: cowpea (Vigna unquiculata), mung bean (Phaseolus aureus) and soya bean (Glycine max) planted in two replications. Pods were harvested periodically during seed maturation and studied for changes in fresh and dry weights, total sulphur, total nitrogen and protein content. At early stages of development crude protein formed about one-third of dry weight in the legumes but decreased to about one-quarter at maturity. The total sulphur which formed a substantial amount of the sulphur amino-acids in mature seeds did not change much in mung bean and cowpea but increased by about 24% from 20 to 69 days after flowering (DAF) in soya bean. Storage protein accumulation was very rapid between 10 and 14 DAF (10.4% day^?1) in mung bean, 7 and 14 DAF (12.9% day^?1) in cowpea and between 20 and 30 DAF (9.4 day^?1) in soya bean. Thereafter, protein accumulation declined slightly and gradually approached zero at time of seed maturity. The sulphur-to-nitrogen ratios gradually increased with maximum values in the mature seeds. Although seed protein content and quality (on S/N ratio basis) were highest in soya bean, accumulation of storage protein seemed to be faster in cowpea than mung bean and soya bean during seed maturation.     

Fermentation of Vigna sinensis var. carilla flours by natural microflora and Lactobacillus species

Natural fermentation and an inoculum containing 10% (vol/vol) Lactobacillus fermentum or Lactobacillus plantarum were used to obtain fermented flours from Vigna sinensis L. var. carilla seeds that had been washed with distilled water and dried at 55 degrees C for 24 h. To optimize the fermentation parameters (lactic acid bacterium level, bean flour concentration, and fermentation time), several small-scale fermentation processes were carried out. On the basis of the results obtained, fermentor-scale bean fermentation by microorganisms present on the seeds (natural fermentation [NF]) or by inoculation with L. plantarum (PF) was carried out at 37 degrees C for 48 h with a concentration of 300 g of bean flour per liter. The fermented flours (NF and PF) were also autoclaved. The levels of alpha-galactosides, inositol phosphates, trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), soluble carbohydrates, starch (total and available), total available carbohydrates, thiamin, and riboflavin were determined for the processed cowpea flours, and microbiological studies were also carried out. The beans' levels of alpha-galactosides, TIA, and inositol hexaphosphate decreased by 95, 50, and 85%, respectively, for the NF flour and by 87, 27, and 85%, respectively, for the PF flour, while inositol pentaphosphate and inositol tetraphosphate were present in both fermented flours. The sucrose content decreased, and glucose, fructose, and galactose appeared as a result of fermentation. The levels of total available sugars and thiamin decreased by 2 and 12% and by 69 and 43%, respectively, while the riboflavin content increased by 106 and 94% for NF and PF flours, respectively. When NF and PF cowpea flours were heated in an autoclave for 20 min, TIA decreased further (by 80 and 56%, respectively). According to the chemical and microbiological results obtained in this study, fermentation with L. plantarum and autoclaving is an excellent process by which to produce a new functional food from the seed of a cheap legume (Vigna sinensis L. var. carilla).     

干酪乳杆菌发酵8种食用豆提取物抗氧化活性研究

该试验分析了干酪乳杆菌（Lactobacillus casei）发酵8种食用豆总酚、总黄酮含量以及抗氧化活性的变化。结果表明,发酵前豇豆总酚含量最高,为（5.53±0.18） mg 没食子酸当量（GAE）/g干质量;红豆总黄酮含量最高,为（11.55±0.16） mg 芦丁当量（RE）/g干质量。发酵后绿豆总酚、总黄酮含量增加最高,分别为182.35%、27.84%;豇豆总酚含量、菜豆总黄酮含量下降最多,分别为43.40%、82.13%。发酵后豌豆提取物1,1-二苯基-2-三硝基苯肼（DPPH）自由基清除活性上升最显著,菜豆提取物下降最显著;绿豆提取物2,2'-联氮-双（3-乙基苯并噻唑啉-6-磺酸）二铵盐（ABTS）自由基清除活性上升最显著,菜豆提取物下降最显著;豌豆提取物铁离子还原能力上升最显著,菜豆提取物下降最显著。相关性分析结果显示,总酚、总黄酮含量与抗氧化活性均极显著相关（P＜0.01）。发酵对食用豆酚类物质含量和抗氧化活性影响显著,为开发不同食用豆功能食品提供理论基础。     

Structure and Viscoelastic Properties of Starches Separated from Different Legumes

A comparison between the morphological, structural, thermal and viscoelastic properties of starches separated from pigeon pea, chickpea, field pea, kidney bean and blackgram was made. The shape of the starch granules in the different legumes varied from oval to elliptical or spherical. X-ray diffraction of the legume starches indicated a typical C-pattern (mixture of A- and B-type). Granules of blackgram and pigeon pea starch had a higher degree of crystallinity than those of field pea and kidney bean starches. Apparent amylose content of field pea, kidney bean, chickpea, blackgram and pigeon pea starch was 37.9%, 36.0%, 34.4-35.5%, 32.9-35.6% and 31.8%, respectively. Distribution of isoamylase-branched materials among the starches revealed that the proportions of long and short side chains of amylopectin ranged between 13.6-18.5% and 41.7-46.5%, respectively. Field pea and kidney bean starch had the highest apparent amylose content and the lowest amount of long side chains of amylopectin, respectively. Blackgram and pigeon pea starch possessed higher proportions of both long and short side chains of amylopectin than field pea and chickpea starches. The onset, peak and conclusion temperatures of gelatinization (T_o T_p and T_c, respectively) were determined by differential scanning calorimetry. T_o and T_c ranged from 59.3 to 77.3°C, 66.8 to 79.6°C, 55.4 to 67.6°C and 68.3 to 69.3°C, respectively, for chickpea, blackgram, field pea and kidney bean starch. The enthalpy of gelatinization (ΔH_gel) of field pea, kidney bean, chickpea, blackgram and pigeon pea starches was 3.6, 3.0, 2.6-4.2, 1.6-1.7 and 2.6 J/g, respectively. Pastes of blackgram and pigeon pea starches showed lower storage and loss shear moduli G′ than field pea, kidney bean and chickpea starches. The changes in moduli during 10 h at 10°C revealed retrogradation in the order of: field pea> kidney bean> chickpea> blackgram> pigeon pea starch. In blackgram and pigeon pea starches, the lower proportion of amylose plus intermediate fraction and higher proportion of short and long side chains of amylopectin are considered responsible for the higher crystallinity, gelatinization temperature and enthalpy of gelatinization.     

Comparative study of three legume starches

Starch content of chickpea ( Cicer arietinum ), pigeon pea ( Cajanus cajan ) and bonavist bean ( Dolichos lablab ) was 58,52 and 50% respectively with recovery of 57.9, 48.1 and 49.0%. The amylose content was 33.5, 27.0 and 31.0%; amylose chain length was 1420,550 and 830 glucose units and amylopectin chain length was 29, 27 and 28 glucose units for chickpea, pigeon pea and bonavist bean respectively. Chickpea starch granules ranged from large oval shaped (21 × 30 pm) to small spherical (13 pm in diameter); pigeon pea from (35 × 42 pm) to 15.2 pm and bonavist bean (35 × 42 pm) to 15.2 pm. The gelatin-ization temperature range was 67–76°C for chickpea, 71–78°C for pigeon pea and 78–80°C for bonavist bean starch. The swelling power for chickpea, pigeon pea and bonavist bean at 95°C were 17, 18.5 and 22.5% respectively. The legumes showed a single-stage and somewhat restricted swelling. Solubility curves for legume starches showed a similar pattern and indicated that they have higher solubility at elevated temperatures than wheat starch. The liquefaction characteristics showed that chickpea has the highest resistance to cooking and was the most sensitive to a-amylase. The three legume starches gave stabilized Brabender hot-paste viscosity; chickpea had a lower overall viscosity due to its exceptionally long amylose chains.     

The effect of lipoxygenase action on the mechanical development of wheat flour doughs

The mechanical development of dough has been followed by measurement of the relaxation time of dough samples after mixing to various levels of work input. Parallel determinations of free and bound lipid have also been made. When doughs were mixed in air, addition of full-fat, enzyme-active soya bean flour (subsequently referred to as “soya flour”) resulted in an increase in relaxation time, particularly at higher work levels. The magnitude of this improvement increased with increasing work input and was dependent on the rate of work input. Addition of soya flour also enabled a higher level of mechanical work to be introduced before dough breakdown occurred. When doughs were mixed under nitrogen, or when the soya flour was heat denatured, no change in the rheological properties compared with the respective control doughs was found. The release of bound lipid, which occurred during dough development in air in the presence of soya flour, could also be induced by adding purified lipoxygenase to the dough, together with linoleic acid as a substrate. This resulted in rheological changes similar to those observed using soya flour. However addition of enzymically pre-peroxidised lipid to doughs mixed in nitrogen was without effect on relaxation times. These findings suggest that lipid release is linked with structural changes in dough protein and provide further support for a mechanism of coupled oxidation of protein -SH groups by lipoxygenase.     

Molecular weight of guar gum affects short-chain fatty acid profile in model intestinal fermentation

Dietary fiber exerts many beneficial physiological effects; however, not all types of dietary fiber display the same effects. Partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG), a lower molecular weight form of guar gum, is more easily incorporated into food, but may have less pronounced physiological effects than the native form. The aim of this study was to identify differences in intestinal fermentability based on the molecular weight of guar gum. Guar gum of four molecular masses (15, 20, 400, and 1,100 kDa) was fermented using a batch in vitro fermentation system. Human fecal inoculum was the source of microbes. The 400-kDa fraction produced the greatest concentrations of total short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) at 8 h and the highest amounts of butyrate at 24 h. At 24 h, the 400-kDa fraction produced more total SCFA and propionate than the 15 kDa, but was not different than 20 kDa or 1,100 kDa fractions. The molecular weight of guar gum was positively correlated with acetate production and negatively correlated with propionate production. This study concludes that 400-kDa guar gum may be optimal for intestinal fermentability. In conclusion, the molecular weight of guar gum affects in vitro fermentability and should be considered when adding to a food or beverage.     

In vitro digestibility of bacillus fermented soya bean

Bacillus fermented legume products include among others dawadawa and soumbala made from African locust bean, and natto and kinema made from soya bean. Bacillus subtilis is the dominant species involved in the fermentation. During Bacillus fermentation for 48 h of autoclaved soya bean the quantity of soluble and dialyzable matter increased from 22% and 6% up to 65% and 40%, respectively. Protein and carbohydrate degradation during fermentation of soya bean with several Bacillus spp. was investigated and appeared to be substantial during the first 18 h of fermentation resulting in the release of high levels of peptides and oligosaccharides. In vitro digestibility was increased from 29% up to 33–43% after Bacillus fermentation for 48 h. It was shown that Bacillus spp. were able to degrade soya bean macromolecules to a large extent resulting in water-soluble low molecular weight compounds. In vitro digestion of Bacillus fermented soya bean using gastrointestinal enzymes only slightly increased the amount of dialyzable matter, which clearly demonstrated the beneficial effect of Bacillus fermentation on food nutrient availability.     

Effect of heating at deep-fat frying temperature on the sterol content of soya bean oil

Preliminary studies by gas chromatography of phytosterols naturally present and added to soya bean oil, indicated that large quantities of these sterols were lost when soya bean oil was exposed to high temperature for a long period. The products which might have been produced as the result of sterol oxidation were not found as members of the nonsaponifiable fraction when this fraction was examined by thin layer and gas chromatography.     

Traffic-induced compaction in maize,cowpea and soya bean production on a tropical alfisol after ploughing and no-tillage: Crop growth

An experiment was conducted over three consecutive seasons during 1982 and 1983 to evaluate the effects of traffic-induced compaction on growth and yield of maize, cowpea and soya bean grown in a tropical Alfisol for no-tillage and ploughed systems. Compaction treatments of no, two and four passes of a 2-tonne roller were used on the sub-plots. The roller was 60 cm in diameter, 180 cm long, with a contact area of 0.1729 m² and was pulled by a 33.6 kW tractor. The four-pass treatment reduced percentage emergence, plant height, leaf number, leaf area index, and dry matter yield of maize, cowpea and soya bean. These reductions were more marked on ploughed than on no-till plots. The two-and four-pass treatments significantly reduced root growth of maize, cowpea and soya bean in the 0–70 mm depth, but the reduction in root density was greater in ploughed than in no-tillage. The two-and four-pass compaction treatments reduced plant nutrient uptake and grain yield of maize, cowpea and soya bean. The four-pass treatment reduced maize grain yield by 48% in all seasons under no-tillage and by 53, 61 and 75% after ploughing in the first, second and third consecutive cropping seasons respectively, compared to the yield of the relevant non-compacted treatment. Cowpea yield was reduced by 38% in all seasons after no-tillage and by 39, 50 and 57% after ploughing during the first, second and third consecutive cropping season respectively. The response of soya bean to four-pass compaction resulted in yield reduction by 50,64 and 25% after no-tillage and by 47, 48 and 65% after ploughing in the first, second and third consecutive cropping season, respectively. Crop yields were found to be negatively correlated with soil bulk density, penetrometer resistance, and relative compaction, and positively correlated with infiltration rate, soil moisture content and specific volume. Multiple regression equations were also developed between crop yield and soil properties.     

Survival and growth of acid-adapted and unadapted Shigella flexneri in a traditional fermented Ghanaian weaning food as affected by fortification with cowpea

Shigellae are among the major causes of diarrheal diseases in infants and young children in developing countries. We conducted a study to determine the effect of fermentation of corn and corn/cowpea doughs used to prepare a traditional weaning porridge on the survival and growth characteristics of acid-adapted and unadapted Shigella flexneri. Porridges were prepared from doughs fermented for 0, 24, and 48 h at 30 degrees C. Four-strain mixtures of acid-adapted and unadapted S. flexneri cells were separately inoculated (10(4)-10(5) and 10(6)-10(7) cfu/ml) into porridges made from unfermented (pH 5.74-6.05) and fermented (pH 4.07-4.38) doughs. Viability of acid-adapted cells was retained at higher levels in porridge made from fermented dough, compared to unfermented dough, regardless of composition of the porridge or incubation temperature. Cells inoculated into the porridges containing fermented dough were not detected (<1 cfu/ml) within 4 h at 48 degrees C. Results indicate that prior exposure of cells to acid stress renders them more resistant to subsequent acidic conditions. The addition of cowpea flour to corn dough followed by fermentation had little effect on the survival of S. flexneri in porridges made from the dough.     

Short-chain fatty acid content and pH in caecum of rats given various sources of carbohydrates

The caecal content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA; acetic, propionic and butyric acid), caecal pH, fermentability and dry matter digestibility (DMD) were examined through balance experiments in rats fed 11 various indigestible carbohydrates. The following carbohydrate sources were incorporated into test diets: cellulose, oat husk, wheat bran, oat bran, pea fibre, linseed fibre, low methoxylated (LM)-pectin, guargum, β-glucans, neosugar and raffinose. The indigestible carbohydrates, except for those in wheat bran, oat husk and cellulose, were highly fermented, ie > 90%. Caecal pH varied between 5·6 and 7·8, with neosugar and raffinose causing the lowest pH and the fibre-free diet and the diet with oat husk the highest. The caecal pool sizes of SCFA were highest with raffinose, β-glucans, LM-pectin, guargum and linseed fibre (335-400 μmol) while pea fibre, wheat bran, oat bran and neosugar gave intermediate levels (137–227 μmol). The pool size with oat husk and cellulose was similar as with the basal diet (45–64 μmol). A high proportion of propionic acid was obtained with guargum and linseed fibre, whereas acetic acid was the predominant product in case of LM-pectin. On the other hand, linseed fibre gave a remarkably low proportion of butyric acid. The quantity fermented and caecal pH correlated well to the amount of SCFA with most materials (r = 0·96 and r = ?0·87, respectively), an exception was neosugar and in case of fermentability also oat bran. DMD values with most of the easily fermented carbohydrates were high (>96%). Exceptions were diets with β-glucans and oat bran which caused low DMD values, about 93%. It is concluded that indigestible carbohydrates may differ in ability to lower caecal pH and to form SCFA during fermentation.     

Effect of microwave treatment on the cooking and macronutrient qualities of pulses

The effect of microwave treatment to reduce the cooking times of five pulses, namely red lentil, chickpea, pigeon pea, mung bean, and pinto bean, were determined in this study. Pulses from 10 to 18% moisture contents were treated using 400 to 600 W microwaves for 14 to 56 s. The cooking times of microwave-treated pulses were significantly lower than that of the control samples. The lowest cooking time was observed for 18% moisture content chickpea and pigeon pea treated with 600 W for 56 s. The Fourier transform mid-infrared spectra in both lipids and fingerprint regions showed the macronutrients differences among the five pulses. Major changes were observed in the amide I region of microwave treated pulses. This effect of microwave treatment was higher in red lentil, chickpea, and mung bean than in pigeon pea and pinto bean at 10% moisture content. At 18% moisture content, the change of β-sheets to aggregates was observed in all pulses due to microwave treatment.