The achievement motive, goal setting, and probability preferences.

"This study deals with the effect of individual differences in strength of achievement motive on… goal setting… [and] preferences for imaginary bets equated for expected monetary value but differing in probability of winning… . Measures of n Achievement were obtained by content analysis of responses to the French Test of Insight. Persons with high n Achievement scores were assumed to have relatively stronger motives to approach success and those with low n Achievement scores relatively stronger motives to avoid failure… . The results are consistent with the theory concerning motivational determinants of risk taking behavior and constitute evidence of the… effects of individual differences in… achievement motive… in games of chance as well as… skill." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of group feedback, goal setting, and incentives on organizational productivity.

Productivity research has focused on simple jobs with the individual as the unit of analysis. Most jobs are more complex and, because of the interdependencies in the work, require group-level interventions and more complex measures of performance or productivity. This research presents a new method of measuring productivity, the Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System (ProMES), and uses measures from this approach as a foundation for group-based feedback, goal setting, and incentives. The experimental design consisted of a baseline period of 8 to 9 months, followed by a 5-month period of feedback based on the ProMES. Goal setting was then added to feedback for 5 months. Finally, incentives in the form of time off from work were added to feedback and goal setting for another 5 months. Results indicated that group-level feedback increased productivity an average of 50% over baseline, group goal setting increased productivity 75% over baseline, and group incentives increased productivity 76% over baseline. Control group data showed no or only a slight increase in productivity over the same period, and level of personnel either stayed the same or decreased. In addition, work attitudes such as job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and morale were as good or better following the interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disentangling achievement orientation and goal setting: Effects on self-regulatory processes.

H. Heckhausen and J. Kuhl's (1985) goal typology provided the conceptual foundation for this research, which examined the independent and integrated effects of achievement orientation and goal-setting approaches on trainees' self-regulatory activity. Using a complex computer-based simulation, the authors examined the effects of 3 training design factors--goal frame, goal content, and goal proximity--cutting across these 2 theoretical domains on the nature, focus, and quality of the self-regulatory activities of 524 trainees. Results revealed that all 3 factors had a significant influence on self-regulation, with goal content exhibiting the greatest influence. In line with expectations, congruent learning frame and content compared with congruent performance frame and content was beneficial for trainees' self-regulatory activity, incongruent combinations of goal frame and content were better than congruent performance frames and content, and effects for the incongruent combinations cutting across the domains were asymmetrical. Theoretical extensions for further disentangling these distinct domains and training design implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of goal setting on performance and job satisfaction.

Conducted a field experiment to compare participative, assigned, and no-training (comparison) goal setting groups. 37 sales personnel were trained in participative goal setting, and 41 were trained in assigned goal setting. A 3rd group of 44 served as a comparison unit. Mean age range of Ss was 34.3-36.4 yrs. Measures of 4 performance and 2 satisfaction criteria were collected at 4 data points: baseline (before training), and 6, 9, and 12 mo after training. Analysis of variance and Duncan's multiple-range test results indicate that for at least 9 mo both participative and assigned goal setting Ss were more effective in improving performance and satisfaction. The improvements, however, were generally not found 12 mo after training. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Joint effect of feedback and goal setting on performance: A field study of residential energy conservation.

The facilitating motivational effect of feedback on performance has been attributed by some to difficult goals set in response to feedback. The present experiment attributes this effect to the presence of both a difficult goal and feedback about performance in relation to that goal. 80 families were asked to set a goal to reduce their residential electricity consumption for several weeks during the summer, half of them by 20% (a difficult goal) and half by 2% (an easy goal). Within each of these groups, half of the families were given feedback 3 times/wk about their consumption. 20 more families served as a control group. As predicted, the 20%-feedback group conserved the most (13.0–25.1%) and was the only one that consumed significantly less electricity than the control. It is concluded that improved performance was a result of the joint effect of feedback and goal setting. The implications of the present research for a national residential conservation strategy are discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactive self-monitoring: The effects of response desirability, goal setting, and feedback.

Examined the reactive effect of self-monitoring in 3 experiments with a total of 250 undergraduates. In each experiment, performance on a sentence-construction task, the dependent measure, was determined immediately before and after the experimental manipulations were presented. Exp I evaluated the effect of valence or social desirability of the behavior and self-monitoring and being observed by another person; and Exp III replicated the effect of performance standard and also evaluated the role of response feedback. Results indicate that (a) self-monitoring was reactive, (b) the valence given to the target response determined the direction of behavior change, (c) self-monitoring and response valence were necessary but not sufficient conditions for behavior change, (d) monitoring one's own behavior or being monitored by someone else were equally reactive, (e) providing a performance goal or feedback augmented the reactive effects of self-monitoring, and (f) the act of self-recording led to behavior change. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A model of statistics performance based on achievement goal theory.

Structural equation modeling techniques were used to test a model of statistics performance based on achievement goal theory. Data were collected after the midterm and final examinations in an introductory statistics course, and models were fit at each time point. Learning goals were positively related to the use of deep-processing strategies and to self-efficacy and were negatively related to test anxiety. Performance goals were positively related to disorganization in study strategies and to test anxiety. Both learning and performance goals affected achievement indirectly through study strategies, self-efficacy, and test anxiety. Use of deep-processing strategies was positively related to effort but displayed an unexpected negative relationship to achievement. Disorganization was a positive predictor of test anxiety. Implications of these findings for teaching and learning statistics are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Importance of participative goal setting and anticipated rewards on goal difficulty and job performance.

In Study 1, 76 engineers/scientists either participated in the setting of, or were assigned, specific behavioral goals during their performance appraisal. Participative goal setting resulted in more difficult goals being set than was the case when the goals were assigned. Perceptions of goal difficulty, however, were not significantly different in the 2 goal-setting conditions. In Study 2, the analysis of the performance data collected 6 mo later on 132 engineers/scientists revealed main effects for both goal setting and anticipated rewards. Only participative goal setting led to significantly higher performance than a "do your best" and a control group condition. There was no significant difference between the performance of the latter 2 conditions despite the fact that the individuals in the do-your-best group received knowledge of results. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of core self-evaluations to goal setting, motivation, and performance.

A newly developed personality taxonomy suggests that self-esteem, locus of control, generalized self-efficacy, and neuroticism form a broad personality trait termed core self-evaluations. The authors hypothesized that this broad trait is related to motivation and performance. To test this hypothesis, 3 studies were conducted. Study 1 showed that the 4 dispositions loaded on 1 higher order factor. Study 2 demonstrated that the higher order trait was related to task motivation and performance in a laboratory setting. Study 3 showed that the core trait was related to task activity, productivity as measured by sales volume, and the rated performance of insurance agents. Results also revealed that the core self-evaluations trait was related to goal-setting behavior. In addition, when the 4 core traits were investigated as 1 nomological network, they proved to be more consistent predictors of job behaviors than when used in isolation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of goal orientation following performance feedback.

This study examined the relationship of goal orientation and performance over a series of 2 challenging performance events. After providing performance feedback on the 1st event, the authors found that the relationship between a learning goal orientation and performance remained positive for the 2nd event, the relationship between a proving goal orientation and performance diminished from a positive to a nonsignificant level, and the relationship between an avoiding goal orientation and performance remained negative. Data analysis also indicated that the relationships between the 3 goal orientation dimensions and the performance event were differentially mediated by goal setting, self-efficacy, and effort. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improving job performance through training in goal setting.

Examined the generality of goal-setting theory to an industrial setting. 20 pulpwood-logging operators were matched and randomly assigned to either a 1-day training program in goal setting or a control group. Measures of production, turnover, absenteeism, and injuries were collected for 12 consecutive wks. Analyses of variance indicated that goal setting can lead to an increase in production and a decrease in absenteeism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality and the goal-striving process: The influence of achievement goal patterns, goal level, and mental focus on performance and enjoyment.

The purpose of this study is to examine the mechanisms by which personality traits influence performance and satisfaction. Specifically, the authors examined how 3 personality characteristics derived from self-determination theory (autonomy, control, and amotivated orientations) influence performance and enjoyment through achievement goal patterns, goal level, and mental focus. Data were collected from 284 students at 5 points in time. In particular, mental focus emerged as an important aspect of the self-regulation process. The results suggest that global personality traits can help researchers to understand and predict the motivational strategies that people use while working toward goals in achievement settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of assigned and participative goal setting on performance and job satisfaction.

Evaluated the job performance of 41 female typists under participative or assigned goal setting conditions over a 10-wk period. Significant productivity improvement occurred in both conditions during the 2nd 5 wks. There was no significant difference between conditions with respect to goal difficulty or frequency of goal attainment. Job satisfaction declined slightly in both conditions. Individual trait measures such as need for independence did not moderate the effects of either type of goal setting. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of task difficulty, goal setting, and strategy on performance of a heuristic task.

Investigated the relative contribution of goal setting and task difficulty to performance on a heuristic computer task with 128 undergraduates who attempted to solve either easy or difficult maze puzzles. Each S was assigned either an easy, moderate, or difficult goal or told to do his/her best. One month prior to the experiment, Ss responded to the Neuroticism scale of the Eysenck Personality Inventory to collect data on arousal. Data were also collected on acceptance, commitment, task complexity, and performance. Results show that both goals and task difficulty affected task performance, arousal, and perceptions of task complexity. A linear, rather than curvilinear, relationship was found between task arousal and performance. Contrary to prior research by G. A. Bassett (see record 1980-33518-001), results also show that, when the task was difficult, the setting of a difficult goal led to significantly lower performance. The decrease in performance in the difficult goal condition was attributed to the variation in performance strategy employed by these Ss as opposed to other Ss. It is argued that the setting of difficult goals may not be an effective motivational strategy when a heuristic, rather than algorithmic, solution is needed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of goal setting on group performance: A meta-analysis.

Updating and extending the work of O'Leary-Kelly, Martocchio, and Frink (1994), with this meta-analysis on goal setting and group performance we show that specific difficult goals yield considerably higher group performance compared with nonspecific goals (d = 0.80 ± 0.35, k = 23 effect sizes). Moderately difficult and easy goals were also associated with performance benefits relative to nonspecific goals, but these effects were smaller. The overall effect size for all group goals was d = 0.56 ± 0.19 (k = 49). Unexpectedly, task interdependence, task complexity, and participation did not moderate the effect of group goals. Our inventory of multilevel goals in interdependent groups indicated that the effect of individual goals in groups on group performance was contingent upon the focus of the goal: “Egocentric” individual goals, aimed at maximizing individual performance, yielded a particularly negative group-performance effect (d = –1.75 ± 0.60, k = 6), whereas “groupcentric” goals, aimed at maximizing the individual contribution to the group's performance, showed a positive effect (d = 1.20 ± 1.03, k = 4). These findings demonstrate that group goals have a robust effect on group performance. Individual goals can also promote group performance but should be used with caution in interdependent groups. Future research might explore the role of multilevel goals for group performance in more detail. The striking lack of recent field studies in organizational settings that emerged from our brief review of trends in group goal-setting research should be taken into account when designing future studies in this domain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Additive effects of task difficulty and goal setting on subsequent task performance.

Notes that the setting of difficult goals has been consistently found to improve performance in both laboratory and field settings; however, the setting of difficult goals has sometimes been confounded with the difficulty of the task especially in field studies where the difficulty of goals and more complex tasks often co-vary. The present study investigated the relative contribution of goal setting and task difficulty to performance on chess problems. Employing a 3 * 3 factorial design, 82 chess-playing undergraduates attempted to solve either easy, moderately difficult, or difficult chess problems, after accepting either an easy, moderately difficult, or difficult goal. Results show that both goals and task difficulty contributed additively to task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socialization of achievement: Influence of mothers' need for approval on children's achievement cognitions and behavior.

Investigated the effect of mothers' need for approval (nApp) on children's expectancies for success and persistence during failure. 90 5th-grade boys and girls were asked to complete 4 puzzles, 3 of which were unsolvable. Ss stated their expectancies before each trial, before the first and last trials, or before the last trial only. On each trial children's persistence was measured. In addition, nApp of the children's mothers was measured with the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Gender differences in expectancies were found only for children with high-nApp mothers, with boys stating higher expectancies than girls before both the first and last trials. With regard to persistence, differences between groups emerged only for children with high-nApp mothers. No gender differences were found. Implications of these results for parental socialization of achievement are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goals, strategy development, and task performance: Some limits on the efficacy of goal setting.

Specific, difficult goals enhance performance in many tasks. We hypothesize, however, that this effect disappears or reverses for novel tasks that allow multiple alternative strategies. We report findings from three laboratory experiments using a stock market prediction task with these characteristics. In the first study, 34 students made predictions concerning the value of 100 companies' stock based on three manipulated cues after receiving either a "do your best" or a specific, difficult goal concerning the accuracy of their predictions. In the second study, 88 students making stock market predictions received one of the following goals: do your best, specific-easy, specific-moderate, specific-hard, or a tapering, specific goal. The third study (n?=?30) replicated the first study by using a different prediction algorithm for the stock market simulation. Repeated measures multivariate analyses of variance conducted on indexes of prediction accuracy and predictor weightings supported the hypothesis that specific, difficult goals (prediction accuracy) increase an individual's strategy search activity and reduce prediction accuracy for the stock predictions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Explaining performance variability: Contributions of goal setting, task characteristics, and evaluative contexts.

263 undergraduates participated in a factorial design consisting of 4 goal conditions (no goal, do your best, easy goal, and difficult goal)?×?3 evaluative contexts (control, peer evaluation, and compliance)?×?2 task characteristics (low and high variety)?×?2 (order of task presentation); all Ss worked on 2 tasks (manual and cognitive). Univariate MANOVAs revealed that performance on the cognitive task was significantly affected by type of goal, task variety, and evaluative context. Performance on the manual task was affected by task variety and evaluative context but not by type of goal. For both tasks, satisfaction was adversely affected by the presence of goals but was unaffected by evaluative contexts. For the cognitive task only, satisfaction was significantly higher in the low-variety condition. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)