The conservation value of suburban golf courses in a rapidly urbanising region of Australia

The conservation value of suburban golf courses was assessed in southeast Queensland, Australia, by investigating their capacity to support urban-threatened birds, mammals, reptiles and frogs. Terrestrial vertebrate assemblages were compared between golf courses and nearby eucalypt fragments and with suburban bird assemblages. Biotic diversity varied among golf courses. While some had conservation value (supporting high densities of regionally threatened vertebrates), most failed to realise that potential, supporting only common urban-adapted species. Golf courses were generally a better refuge for threatened birds and mammals than for threatened reptiles and amphibians. Reasons for the relative absence of threatened herpetofauna are currently unclear but could be attributed to increased sensitivity to isolation, exposure to herbicides or greater disruption of ground-level habitats. While species-specific studies are required to identify the ecological role played by habitats on golf courses and the potential for long-term viability, the results confirm that suburban golf courses can have local conservation value for threatened vertebrates. Given their ubiquity, golf courses present a significant opportunity for urban wildlife conservation. Thus while the golf industry is making genuine attempts to improve its environmental management standards, it is important to ensure those efforts target the needs of regionally threatened species. Legislation may be required to ensure ecological criteria are incorporated in new golf developments. Ongoing research is investigating the effect that golf course design and management practices have on the local diversity of threatened vertebrates.     

Effects of golf courses on local biodiversity

There are approximately 2600 golf courses in the UK, occupying 0.7% of the total land cover. However, it is unknown whether these represent a significant resource, in terms of biodiversity conservation, or if they are significantly less diverse than the surrounding habitats.The diversity of vegetation (tree and herbaceous species) and three indicator taxa (birds, ground beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) and bumblebees (Hymenoptera, Apidae)) was studied on nine golf courses and nine adjacent habitats (from which the golf course had been created) in Surrey, UK. Two main objectives were addressed: (1) to determine if golf courses support a higher diversity of organisms than the farmland they frequently replace; (2) to examine whether biodiversity increases with the age of the golf course.Birds and both insect taxa showed higher species richness and higher abundance on the golf course habitat than in nearby farmland. While there was no difference in the diversity of herbaceous plant species, courses supported a greater diversity of tree species. Furthermore, bird diversity showed a positive relation with tree diversity for each habitat type. It was found that introduced tree species were more abundant on the older golf courses, showing that attitudes to nature conservation on courses have changed over time. Although the courses studied differed in age by up to 90 years, the age of the course had no effect on diversity, abundance or species richness for any of the animal taxa sampled. We conclude that golf courses of any age can enhance the local biodiversity of an area by providing a greater variety of habitats than intensively managed agricultural areas.     

Recommendations for design and management of golf courses and green spaces based on surveys of breeding bird communities in Montreal

It has been suggested that golf courses can serve as wildlife habitat, provided key landscape features are present. Breeding bird communities were characterized on six golf courses and six green spaces in the Montreal area, Quebec, Canada. Landscape variables were measured to see which were the best correlates of avian species richness within and across sites. While there was no difference in the mean number of bird species (golf: 31 ± 2.4 SE; green: 33 ± 4.5 SE), golf courses supported fewer total species (golf: 55; green: 66). However, most of the species contributing to the green spaces’ higher cumulative total were found at one site. Species composition differed between golf courses and green spaces, and was most correlated with site size, housing density surrounding the site, and extent of coniferous tree, grass, and vegetated water cover. Our results support the work of others, and suggest that golf course architects can improve habitat quality by: (1) increasing deciduous and coniferous tree cover; (2) increasing native vegetation within and surrounding all water bodies; (3) reducing the amount of highly managed grass area; (4) ensuring large, undeveloped buffers are maintained to prevent a shift in avian community composition with increasing urban sprawl; and (5) ensuring sites are planned as large as possible.     

Planning for avian wildlife in urbanizing areas in American desert/mountain valley environments

Residents in western American states are expressing a growing interest in wildlife-oriented recreation in the urbanized environment. Unfortunately, present development practices which convert rural land to urban use, often under the guidance of landscape architects and planners, have caused the displacement of many wildlife species. Vegetation management in urban areas has produced equally detrimental effects on urban wildlife. The net result has been a decline in overall urban wildlife species diversity.Landscape architects, planners, urban foresters and others involved in land conversion and vegetation management have a tremendous opportunity to improve the quality of urban wildlife habitat and to benefit the growing number of urban wildlife enthusiasts. However, to do so the planning and design pofessions must appreciate the value of urban wildlife, become aware of wildlife welfare needs and incorporate wildlife as a significant factor in the design process.General wildlife welfare needs are discussed and recommendations regarding ways to integrate wildlife as a factor in traditional planning and management decision making processes are presented. Specific recommendations for wildlife habitat preservation, enhancement and rehabilitation are provided.     

Shades of Green, Fields of Gold: representations, discourse and the politics of golf in Singapore

The issue of golf course provision in the land-scarce city-state of Singapore has always been a contentious one. Using various methodologies, including face-to-face interviews with golfers, non-golfers, golf club managers and planners, the multiple meanings of golf courses and golfing in Singapore are explored, and it is illustrated how differing images of golf are appropriated to suit the particular agendas of its proponents and opponents. These include representing golf courses as expansive spaces, parks, gardens and open spaces, viewing golf as an elitist leisure activity, and asserting that golf is a 'healthy' sport. It is also shown how such representations of golf are shaped by the wider socio-political context of Singapore, and it is argued that understanding how landscapes of golf are 'read' and how discourses of golfing are articulated is important in resolving the issue of golf course provision.     

引导自然的自发秩序——以杭州江洋畈生态 公园内各野生动物种群的环境适应情况为例

都市“再野化”景观的营造,为城市自然栖息地的 存续提供庇护,也为市民近距离观察、欣赏自然全貌提供可 能。以杭州江洋畈生态公园为例,真实还原城市公园的“再野 化”景观设计举措对城市野生动物生存产生的深远影响。基于 园内陆生野生动物的生境分布情况及行为特点,采用样线法和 样方法相结合的方式,对栖息于此的野生动物进行持续观察研 究,发现以下生态设计策略对“引导自然自发秩序”起到至关 重要的作用,有效地促进了当地生态系统的健康演替：1)生境 岛的留存及栈道的设置有利于减少游客对栖息地的干扰;2)降 低灯光亮度、采用LED光源和减少照明时长能有效保护附近鸟 类和昆虫;3)提高果树、蜜源植物和寄主植物的比例能有效 提高鸟类和昆虫的丰富性;4)减少灭虫化学药剂的使用、保 留林间朽木能够显著提升昆虫的多样性,同时为小兽栖息提供 庇护。从园内动物的物种多样性、分布情况及特殊习性的形成 3个方面入手,分析景观设计对野生动物栖息产生的影响,以 及为未来的相关设计提供建议和启发。     

Residents’ evaluation of advantages and disadvantages of golf community living in Alicante,Spain

The growing numbers of golf communities are attracting a diverse group of homebuyers who experience varying levels of neighborhood satisfaction. A multinomial logistic regression analysis with follow-up ANOVA reveals that homeowners in one region of Spain who believe there are more advantages than disadvantages to living in a golf community are more likely to be older, Spanish, and evaluate the natural environment, sports facilities, and water supply of their community as better. Meanwhile, those who perceive more disadvantages cite the limitations on using the golf course for non-golf activities, high housing costs, automobile dependence, and lack of services and shops. Thus, satisfaction with the golf community varies depending on the residents’ personal characteristics as well as their evaluation of the neighborhood’s characteristics, but is not directly attributable to whether they play golf or whether the course was a decisive factor in choosing the house.     

A model of greenhouse gas emissions from the management of turf on two golf courses

An estimated 32,000 golf courses worldwide (approximately 25,600 km²), provide ecosystem goods and services and support an industry contributing over $124 billion globally. Golf courses can impact positively on local biodiversity however their role in the global carbon cycle is not clearly understood. To explore this relationship, the balance between plant-soil system sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions from turf management on golf courses was modelled. Input data were derived from published studies of emissions from agriculture and turfgrass management. Two UK case studies of golf course type were used, a Links course (coastal, medium intensity management, within coastal dune grasses) and a Parkland course (inland, high intensity management, within woodland).Playing surfaces of both golf courses were marginal net sources of greenhouse gas emissions due to maintenance (Links 0.4 ± 0.1 Mg CO₂e ha^− 1 y^− 1; Parkland 0.7 ± 0.2 Mg CO₂e ha^− 1 y^− 1). A significant proportion of emissions were from the use of nitrogen fertiliser, especially on tees and greens such that 3% of the golf course area contributed 16% of total greenhouse gas emissions. The area of trees on a golf course was important in determining whole-course emission balance. On the Parkland course, emissions from maintenance were offset by sequestration from trees which comprised 48% of total area, resulting in a net balance of −4.3 ± 0.9 Mg CO_2e ha^− 1 y^− 1. On the Links course, the proportion of trees was much lower (2%) and sequestration from links grassland resulted in a net balance of 0.0 ± 0.2 Mg CO_2e ha^− 1 y^− 1. Recommendations for golf course management and design include the reduction of nitrogen fertiliser, improved operational efficiency when mowing, the inclusion of appropriate tree-planting and the scaling of component areas to maximise golf course sequestration capacity. The findings are transferrable to the management and design of urban parks and gardens, which range between fairways and greens in intensity of management.     

A model of greenhouse gas emissions from the management of turf on two golf courses

An estimated 32,000 golf courses worldwide (approximately 25,600 km²), provide ecosystem goods and services and support an industry contributing over $124 billion globally. Golf courses can impact positively on local biodiversity however their role in the global carbon cycle is not clearly understood. To explore this relationship, the balance between plant-soil system sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions from turf management on golf courses was modelled. Input data were derived from published studies of emissions from agriculture and turfgrass management. Two UK case studies of golf course type were used, a Links course (coastal, medium intensity management, within coastal dune grasses) and a Parkland course (inland, high intensity management, within woodland).Playing surfaces of both golf courses were marginal net sources of greenhouse gas emissions due to maintenance (Links − 2.2 ± 0.4 Mg CO₂e ha^− 1 y^− 1; Parkland − 2.0 ± 0.4 Mg CO₂e ha^− 1 y^− 1). A significant proportion of emissions were from the use of nitrogen fertiliser, especially on tees and greens such that 3% of the golf course area contributed 16% of total greenhouse gas emissions. The area of trees on a golf course was important in determining whole-course emission balance. On the Parkland course, emissions from maintenance were offset by sequestration from turfgrass, and trees which comprised 48% of total area, resulting in a net balance of − 5.4 ± 0.9 Mg CO₂e ha^− 1 y^− 1. On the Links course, the proportion of trees was much lower (2%) and sequestration from links grassland resulted in a net balance of − 1.6 ± 0.3 Mg CO₂e ha^− 1 y^− 1. Recommendations for golf course management and design include the reduction of nitrogen fertiliser, improved operational efficiency when mowing, the inclusion of appropriate tree-planting and the scaling of component areas to maximise golf course sequestration capacity. The findings are transferrable to the management and design of urban parks and gardens, which range between fairways and greens in intensity of management.     

城市边缘区生境保护规划与管控:美国圣克拉拉谷地的经验

城市边缘区自然生境的环境胁迫是城市化造成的突出问题,生境保护早在30多年前就受到发达国家与地区的高度重视。美国的物种保护经历了特定物种实体保护和重要生态斑块保护,最后回到物种赋存生境保护,可见生境保护的重要性。在增强保护规划与提升管控实效方面,中国还有待发掘系统的应对方案。美国生境保护规划起步时间早、管理体系完善且能充分协调生境保护与建设发展的关系,对我国城市地区全覆盖规划,特别是对提升城市边缘区的生态环境保护实效与复合服务能力具有极高的借鉴价值。文章采用文献梳理及案例研究的方法,从保护规划制定、开发项目管控和环境影响评估三个方面剖析美国生境保护的思路和管控方法,并提出通过深度链接高层规划、审批管控流程与环境影响评估的适应性用地布局规划,及"硬-软件"要素结合的管控方法,来应对我国城市边缘区环境保护与管控中存在的问题。     

彩色树种在山地高尔夫球场中的应用探讨

针对国内山地高尔夫球场彩色树种选择和绿化问题进行了探讨,分别介绍了彩叶树种的分类及其在高尔夫球场中的作用,并结合相关原则,具体阐述了彩叶树种在高尔夫球场设计中的应用,以期指导实践。     

Planning and designing for the multiple use role of habitats in urban/suburban landscapes in the Great Basin

Most researchers agree that preserving, creating, and restoring urban wildlife habitats has to be an interdisciplinary undertaking if it is to succeed. Ecologists and wildlife biologists must be key participants. The culturally modified context of most urban habitats suggests that landscape architects also have a primary role to play.Open space in the urban/suburban environment is a scarce and valuable resource. Private and public sector pressure to convert these spaces to commercial or intensive recreational uses are immediate and intense. Presenting arguments to preserve or restore urban open space solely as habitat for wildlife is seldom successful. Decision makers are more likely to support urban wildlife habitat programs if other uses are also accommodated.There is a growing body of research data that suggests that wildlife are being adversely impacted by multiple uses of urban habitats. The challenge for planners and designers is to minimize adverse impacts and capitalize on those attributes of other uses that enhance habitat value. Planning for the temporal as well as spatial dimensions of site uses is required if the needs of wildlife are to be met.The paper presents three general areas in which landscape architects have traditionally contributed to an interdisciplinary approach to urban wildlife habitat planning: contextual perspective, problem solving process, and design/technical execution.Reflecting back on his past 10 years of experience as a landscape architect planning urban wildlife habitats, the author presents several case study projects in which: (A) accommodation of multiple use objectives, including wildlife habitat, was required; (B) interdisciplinary teams participated in the planning and design process; (C) key principles from the fields of landscape ecology, conservation biology and wildlife biology were applied to facility and activity location, habitat configuration, and management.Plans of completed projects are used to illustrate how habitat values were preserved or enhanced and multiple uses accommodated in public open spaces. The paper concludes with a brief summary of keys to success common to each project.     

高尔夫球场规划建设的若干问题——苏格兰的《高尔夫球场及其相关发展》及借鉴

本文介绍苏格兰有关高尔夫球场建设的政策体系和规划建议。结合我国高尔夫球场建设中存在的问题，对我国的高尔夫运动发展及球场规划建设的政策导向作若干讨论。     

Set-aside landscapes: farmer perceptions and practices in England

Set-aside was introduced in the European Community in 1988 on a voluntary basis and, under the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy in 1992, it was a condition for the receipt of area payments for most arable farms in England. The areas of set-aside land reached around 527 000 ha in England in 1994-95, falling to 253 000 ha in 1996-97. The implications of set-aside for landscape and biodiversity are discussed, drawbig on farm questionnaire surveys, supplemented by field studies of biodiversity. The majority of farmers adopted rotational set-aside, and while crop yield and economic factors were the most important factors in selecting land to set-aside, there were few signs of substantial differences between set-aside and other areas of arable land. Most rotational set-aside was under natural regeneration, sprayed with non-selective herbicides in the spring. For the much less frequent non-rotational set-aside, there were similar areas of natural regeneration and sown grass covers. Other forms of cover, including industrial crops, were much less frequent. The farmer perception was that set-aside caused few agronomic problems. The farmers felt that set-aside did not improve the look of the landscape and felt that the benefits to wildlife were greatest from non-rotational set-aside, while field studies suggest that the benefits are typically greater for rotational set-aside, especially for farmland birds. Under Agenda 2000, it is proposed to set the set-aside rate at 0% (voluntary set-aside will still be allowed), and to rely on agri-environment schemes to generate environmental benefits from agricultural landscapes. While this may be appropriate for plants and landscape quality, it will be hard to replace the resources made available to farmland birds by the large areas of set-aside land which may be lost.     

Environmental management: integrating ecological evaluation, remediation, restoration, natural resource damage assessment and long-term stewardship on contaminated lands

Ecological evaluation is essential for remediation, restoration, and Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA), and forms the basis for many management practices. These include determining status and trends of biological, physical, or chemical/radiological conditions, conducting environmental impact assessments, performing remedial actions should remediation fail, managing ecosystems and wildlife, and assessing the efficacy of remediation, restoration, and long-term stewardship. The objective of this paper is to explore the meanings of these assessments, examine the relationships among them, and suggest methods of integration that will move environmental management forward. While remediation, restoration, and NRDA, among others, are often conducted separately, it is important to integrate them for contaminated land where the risks to ecoreceptors (including humans) can be high, and the potential damage to functioning ecosystems great. Ecological evaluations can range from inventories of local plants and animals, determinations of reproductive success of particular species, levels of contaminants in organisms, kinds and levels of effects, and environmental impact assessments, to very formal ecological risk assessments for a chemical or other stressor. Such evaluations can range from the individual species to populations, communities, ecosystems or the landscape scale. Ecological evaluations serve as the basis for making decisions about the levels and kinds of remediation, the levels and kinds of restoration possible, and the degree and kinds of natural resource injuries that have occurred because of contamination. Many different disciplines are involved in ecological evaluation, including biologists, conservationists, foresters, restoration ecologists, ecological engineers, economists, hydrologist, and geologists. Since ecological evaluation forms the basis for so many different types of environmental management, it seems reasonable to integrate management options to achieve economies of time, energy, and costs. Integration and iteration among these disciplines is possible only with continued interactions among practitioners, regulators, policy-makers, Native American Tribes, and the general public.     

Assessment and management of risk to wildlife from cadmium

Cadmium, a nonessential heavy metal that comes from natural and anthropogenic sources, is a teratogen, carcinogen, and a possible mutagen. Assessment of potential risk from cadmium requires understanding environmental exposure, mainly from ingestion, although there is some local exposure through inhalation. Chronic exposure is more problematic than acute exposure for wildlife. There is evidence for bioaccumulation, particularly in freshwater organisms, but evidence for biomagnification up the food chain is inconsistent; in some bird studies, cadmium levels were higher in species that are higher on the food chain than those that are lower. Some freshwater and marine invertebrates are more adversely affected by cadmium exposure than are birds and mammals. There is very little experimental laboratory research on the effects of cadmium in amphibians, birds and reptiles, and almost no data from studies of wildlife in nature. Managing the risk from cadmium to wildlife involves assessment (including ecological risk assessment), biomonitoring, setting benchmarks of effects, regulations and enforcement, and source reduction.     

圣安东尼奥河改造项目（德克萨斯州圣安东尼奥）

作为主要的顾问，SWA领导了一支由工程师、水工作、生态学、河流地貌学家、建筑师以及经济学家组成的小组，来为圣安东尼奥河开发景观，小组为这段13.5英里长的城市河道拟订了一个概念性规划和设计导则，这段河道位于河岸步道的上游和下游。这个河道改造计划将于2012年完成，     

Biodiversity concepts and urban ecosystems

The association of biodiversity and urban ecosystems has usually concerned the impact of urbanization on biodiversity. However, biodiversity concepts can easily be applied to the urban ecosystem itself. As more and more people live in cities, restoration, preservation and enhancement of biodiversity in urban areas become important. Concepts related to biodiversity management such as scale, hierarchy, species identity, species values, fragmentation, global approaches can be used to manage urban biodiversity. Application of these concepts in such artificial ecosystems may yield important insights for the management of natural ecosystems. Birds are highly visible and quite sensitive to changes in habitat structure and composition. Bird species richness in urban ecosystems is influenced both by local and landscape characteristics and a multi-scale approach is essential to its proper management. People–wildlife conflicts are an integral component of wildlife management in urban ecosystems and must be addressed. Enhancement of biodiversity in urban ecosystems can have a positive impact on the quality of life and education of urban dwellers and thus facilitate the preservation of biodiversity in natural ecosystems.     

A framework for the design of wildlife conservation corridors With specific application to southwestern Ontario

Natural disturbances and human development can cause habitat fragmentation. Plant and animal populations can become isolated, but wildlife corridors can potentially alleviate the problem by providing linkages between isolated patches of natural areas. These connecting corridors need to be designed to create habitat appropriate for target species.This study developed a framework for design of wildlife corridors which considered both critical corridor attributes and target species. It provided a methodology for use in designing corridors to ensure appropriate species composition. Objectives included identifying and analyzing attributes which constitute a corridor. An ‘ecosystem approach’ for selecting guilds of target species was used. The framework was applied to a fragmented landscape case study in southwestern Ontario, Canada.Results indicated that, by applying this framework to a fragmented landscape, ecologically appropriate corridors could be designed when corridor attributes and target species were carefully analyzed. In addition, it was shown that optimal corridor designs could be altered to fit a landscape's opportunities and constraints.     

Landscape Plant Selection and Configuration of Golf Course: A Case Study of Golf Course in Overseas Chinese Town,Yunnan

This paper introduced landscape plant selection and configuration on the golf course of Yunnan Overseas Chinese Town(OCT Yunnan) briefly, divided the course into mountain view course, lake view course and landscape avenue. Considering figures, growth habits and ecological characters of landscape plants, various trees, shrubs, grasses, vines and water flowers are arranged reasonably in different functional areas. In terms of plant selection, tree species adaptive to local climate are adopted, more efforts given to the seasonal aspects, lines, colors, layers, balance, and rhythm, so as to create a garden-like golf course in a short term.