Effects of golf courses on local biodiversity

There are approximately 2600 golf courses in the UK, occupying 0.7% of the total land cover. However, it is unknown whether these represent a significant resource, in terms of biodiversity conservation, or if they are significantly less diverse than the surrounding habitats.The diversity of vegetation (tree and herbaceous species) and three indicator taxa (birds, ground beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) and bumblebees (Hymenoptera, Apidae)) was studied on nine golf courses and nine adjacent habitats (from which the golf course had been created) in Surrey, UK. Two main objectives were addressed: (1) to determine if golf courses support a higher diversity of organisms than the farmland they frequently replace; (2) to examine whether biodiversity increases with the age of the golf course.Birds and both insect taxa showed higher species richness and higher abundance on the golf course habitat than in nearby farmland. While there was no difference in the diversity of herbaceous plant species, courses supported a greater diversity of tree species. Furthermore, bird diversity showed a positive relation with tree diversity for each habitat type. It was found that introduced tree species were more abundant on the older golf courses, showing that attitudes to nature conservation on courses have changed over time. Although the courses studied differed in age by up to 90 years, the age of the course had no effect on diversity, abundance or species richness for any of the animal taxa sampled. We conclude that golf courses of any age can enhance the local biodiversity of an area by providing a greater variety of habitats than intensively managed agricultural areas.     

A model of greenhouse gas emissions from the management of turf on two golf courses

An estimated 32,000 golf courses worldwide (approximately 25,600 km²), provide ecosystem goods and services and support an industry contributing over $124 billion globally. Golf courses can impact positively on local biodiversity however their role in the global carbon cycle is not clearly understood. To explore this relationship, the balance between plant-soil system sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions from turf management on golf courses was modelled. Input data were derived from published studies of emissions from agriculture and turfgrass management. Two UK case studies of golf course type were used, a Links course (coastal, medium intensity management, within coastal dune grasses) and a Parkland course (inland, high intensity management, within woodland).Playing surfaces of both golf courses were marginal net sources of greenhouse gas emissions due to maintenance (Links 0.4 ± 0.1 Mg CO₂e ha^− 1 y^− 1; Parkland 0.7 ± 0.2 Mg CO₂e ha^− 1 y^− 1). A significant proportion of emissions were from the use of nitrogen fertiliser, especially on tees and greens such that 3% of the golf course area contributed 16% of total greenhouse gas emissions. The area of trees on a golf course was important in determining whole-course emission balance. On the Parkland course, emissions from maintenance were offset by sequestration from trees which comprised 48% of total area, resulting in a net balance of −4.3 ± 0.9 Mg CO_2e ha^− 1 y^− 1. On the Links course, the proportion of trees was much lower (2%) and sequestration from links grassland resulted in a net balance of 0.0 ± 0.2 Mg CO_2e ha^− 1 y^− 1. Recommendations for golf course management and design include the reduction of nitrogen fertiliser, improved operational efficiency when mowing, the inclusion of appropriate tree-planting and the scaling of component areas to maximise golf course sequestration capacity. The findings are transferrable to the management and design of urban parks and gardens, which range between fairways and greens in intensity of management.     

The conservation value of suburban golf courses in a rapidly urbanising region of Australia

The conservation value of suburban golf courses was assessed in southeast Queensland, Australia, by investigating their capacity to support urban-threatened birds, mammals, reptiles and frogs. Terrestrial vertebrate assemblages were compared between golf courses and nearby eucalypt fragments and with suburban bird assemblages. Biotic diversity varied among golf courses. While some had conservation value (supporting high densities of regionally threatened vertebrates), most failed to realise that potential, supporting only common urban-adapted species. Golf courses were generally a better refuge for threatened birds and mammals than for threatened reptiles and amphibians. Reasons for the relative absence of threatened herpetofauna are currently unclear but could be attributed to increased sensitivity to isolation, exposure to herbicides or greater disruption of ground-level habitats. While species-specific studies are required to identify the ecological role played by habitats on golf courses and the potential for long-term viability, the results confirm that suburban golf courses can have local conservation value for threatened vertebrates. Given their ubiquity, golf courses present a significant opportunity for urban wildlife conservation. Thus while the golf industry is making genuine attempts to improve its environmental management standards, it is important to ensure those efforts target the needs of regionally threatened species. Legislation may be required to ensure ecological criteria are incorporated in new golf developments. Ongoing research is investigating the effect that golf course design and management practices have on the local diversity of threatened vertebrates.     

重庆主城区滨江绿地生境质量研究 — —以夏季鸟类为指示类群

河流廊道对城市化区域生物多样性保护至关重要。为探明重庆主城区滨江绿地生境质量,选择以夏季鸟类为指示类群,通过样线法对滨江区域20个绿地斑块进行了调查,并开展了群落相似性分析、聚类分析、物种多样性和指示种计算等相关分析。结果表明,研究区域雀形目鸟类占绝对优势,比例为78.12%,留鸟居多占71.88%;样地间鸟类群落结构相似性普遍较低,中等不相似和极不相似群落各占53.68%和23.16%;鸟类群落可聚为3类,分别对应受轻度、中度和重度干扰的3类生境;各干扰程度生境中鸟类多样性指数均较低,且在受不同干扰程度影响的生境间无显著差异;位于城乡边缘地带的重度干扰型生境中鸟类多样性指数均高于轻度干扰型;轻度干扰型生境指示种为白颊噪鹛和白头鹎,重度干扰型为麻雀。根据以上结果,重庆主城区滨江绿地鸟类生境普遍受到城市化影响。建议在未来的城市滨江空间建设过程中,应注重绿地生境修复和营造,并同时优化城乡边缘地带土地利用管理,保育优质绿地生境。     

Biodiversity in urban habitat patches

We examined the biodiversity of urban habitats in Birmingham (England) using a combination of field surveys of plants and carabid beetles, genetic studies of four species of butterflies, modelling the anthropochorous nature of the floral communities and spatially explicit modelling of selected mammal species. The aim of the project was to: (i) understand the ecological characteristics of the biota of cities model, (ii) examine the effects of habitat fragment size and connectivity upon the ecological diversity and individual species distributions, (iii) predict biodiversity in cities, and (iv) analyse the extent to which the flora and fauna utilise the 'urban greenways' both as wildlife corridors and as habitats in their own right. The results suggest that cities provide habitats for rich and diverse range of plants and animals, which occur sometimes in unlikely recombinant communities. The studies on carabids and butterflies illustrated the relative importance of habitat quality on individual sites as opposed to site location within the conurbation. This suggests that dispersal for most of our urban species is not a limiting factor in population persistence, although elements of the woodland carabid fauna did appear to have some geographical structuring. Theoretical models suggested that dormice and water voles may depend on linear habitats for dispersal. The models also indicated that other groups, such as small and medium sized mammals, may use corridors, although field-based research did not provide any evidence to suggest that plants or invertebrates use urban greenways for dispersal. This finding indicates the importance of identifying a target species or group of species for urban greenways intended as dispersal routeways rather than as habitat in their own right. Their importance for most groups is rather that greenways provide a chain of different habitats permeating the urban environment. We suggest that planners can have a positive impact on urban biodiversity by slowing the pace of redevelopment and by not hurrying to tidy up and redevelop brownfield sites.     

Shades of Green, Fields of Gold: representations, discourse and the politics of golf in Singapore

The issue of golf course provision in the land-scarce city-state of Singapore has always been a contentious one. Using various methodologies, including face-to-face interviews with golfers, non-golfers, golf club managers and planners, the multiple meanings of golf courses and golfing in Singapore are explored, and it is illustrated how differing images of golf are appropriated to suit the particular agendas of its proponents and opponents. These include representing golf courses as expansive spaces, parks, gardens and open spaces, viewing golf as an elitist leisure activity, and asserting that golf is a 'healthy' sport. It is also shown how such representations of golf are shaped by the wider socio-political context of Singapore, and it is argued that understanding how landscapes of golf are 'read' and how discourses of golfing are articulated is important in resolving the issue of golf course provision.     

以栖息地修复为导向的湿地公园设计方法——以云南省保山市青华湿地为例

Wetland park design seeks to protect and restore the wetland ecosystems of sites through scientific approaches. However, in practice, the relevant ecological principles about wetland restoration are often not effectively understood or applied by landscape designers, resulting in compromised ecological benefits after the restoration, especially in biodiversity and habitat benefits. The authors highlighted the main causal factors in wetland—flooding and fertility—and adopted wetland birds as indicator species to simplify the evaluation method. Based on years of practice, the authors summarized a hydrology-based wetland design method for habitat restoration, aiming to translate ecological principles and research findings into design guidelines that can be easily understood and applied by landscape designers to spatial design. This design method includes 7 steps, namely 1) targeted species selection and goal setting; 2) design of habitat types and spatial arrangement; 3) landform design; 4) water level design; 5) plant community building; 6) landscape design with minimal intervention; and 7) spatial design for natural succession. The article then expanded each step using an illustrative design case, the Qinghua Wetland in Baoshan, Yunnan Province.     

Assessing risk of large-scale habitat conversion in lightly settled landscapes

Conversion of relatively “wild” areas constitutes a rising threat to the ecological integrity of North American landscapes. As developers seek unprotected, amenity-rich lands, conservation planners require methods to recognize risk and prioritize actions. Most development models and processes are incremental, accumulating change over time and space. By contrast, large-scale amenity development can be rapid and extensive, necessitating “rapid assessment” techniques. For undeveloped lakeshores in the Northern Appalachian/Acadian ecoregion (330 000 km²), we developed a geospatial screening process based on four factors: (1) urban area proximity, (2) attractiveness of amenity (size), (3) regulatory gaps in protection, and (4) likelihood that owners will develop. To assess conversion risk, we added developable zones to the 10 783 large lakes and ponds in the ecoregion and assessed risk to these lands based on four factors at two distances from 15 major urban areas in the region. Thirty-eight of 387 landowners were classified most likely to convert their lands through development, and 11 of these accounted for 97.5% of the total high-risk habitat area (625–1118 km²). Nearly all of the at-risk land (94.6%) lay outside of currently settled areas and most (69.1%) under the purview of a single regulatory agency, the Land Use Regulatory Commission of Maine (LURC). Without rigorous planning by such agencies large-scale, highly dispersed, and rapid conversion of lightly settled, amenity-rich forestland threatens habitat degradation at multiple spatial scales, i.e., local ecosystems themselves (e.g., lakes), surrounding landscapes, and regions.     

加拿大下弗雷泽河盆地鸟类栖息地使用情况研究：对于城市规划和生态保护的意义

普通生态学原理在生物多样性规划和管理实践中有了发展,但仍需要进一步深入的研究。本研究建立了一个本地和总体的鸟类栖息地模型,用以支持作为全球生物多样性一个组分的城市地区的生物多样性。这个模型用于为相关研究推荐适合当地的栖息地类型。本研究在繁殖季节调查了三处相似的城市地点的鸟类种群和植被覆盖情况,运用地理信息系统分析数据的...     

Nest distribution of magpies Pica pica sericea as related to habitat connectivity in an urban environment

Understanding the relationship between population dynamics and habitat connectivity is crucial for effective conservation and management of wildlife. In this study, we performed a graph-theoretical analysis to identify the relationship between nest distribution of the black-billed magpie Pica pica sericea and well-connected habitat patches. We analyzed 134 nest sites to determine environmental variables important for nesting magpies and identify habitat patches using a logistic model. Connectivity was estimated by Euclidean distance between habitat patches. A randomization procedure was implemented to verify the association between the nest distribution and the degree of habitat connectivity measured at multiple spatial scales. Preferred nesting habitat was areas close to the forest edge, containing more forest cover within 30 m of the nest. Connectivity analysis showed that the nest location was highly related to large clusters of habitat patches when patches are connected at large spatial scales. In addition, the nests in forest patches were close to grass patches with high connectivity. However, the size of habitat clusters adjacent to nests was much smaller than the average size of total habitat clusters across most scales, indicating that there are anthropogenic factors (e.g., effect of supplementary food in an urban matrix) affecting the distribution of magpie nests. Our results suggest that the distribution of magpie nests is related to landscape connectivity, which can be more clearly explained by taking into account the anthropogenic factors.     

Habitat evaluation using GIS: A case study applied to the San Joaquin Kit Fox

Concern over the fate of plant and animal species throughout the world has accelerated over recent decades. Habitat loss is considered the main culprit in reducing many species’ abundance and range, leading to numerous efforts to plan and manage habitat preservation. Our work uses Geographic Information Systems (GIS) data and modeling to define a spatially explicit analysis of habitat value, using the San Joaquin Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica) of California (USA) as an example. Over the last 30 years, many field studies and surveys have enhanced our knowledge of the life history, behavior, and needs of the kit fox, which has been proposed as an umbrella or indicator species for grassland habitat in the San Joaquin Valley of California. There has yet been no attempt to convert much of this field knowledge into a model of spatial habitat value useful for planning purposes. This is a significant omission given the importance and visibility of the imperiled kit fox and increasing trends toward spatially explicit modeling and planning. In this paper we apply data from northern California to derive a small-cell GIS raster of habitat value for the kit fox that incorporates both intrinsic habitat quality and neighborhood context, as well the effects of barriers such as roads. Such a product is a useful basis for assessing the presence and amounts of good (and poor) quality habitat and for eventually constructing GIS representations of viable animal territories that could be included in future reserves.     

城市空间和回归自然的双赢

蠡湖环湖开放空间系统融合新旧元素,将城市重新融入自然之中。环湖景观围绕蠡湖和各个景点展开,把生动活泼的城市生活融入优雅的山湖自然环境。无锡的历史与水、自然有着紧密的联系,展现在社区生活和艺术、文化、建筑等方方面面。随着城市经济的发展,政府的城市拓展计划最终发展成为“湖滨新城”的远景。自然与文化交相辉映,休闲娱乐、滨水步道、私密空间、观景视线和商业景点,共同创造了一个宜人的工作、娱乐和休闲场所。通过创建湿地、林区植被和生态岛,以及水质清洁和保护等努力,创造了一个富有生态责任感的社区,促进人与自然的和谐共存。新旧文化元素汇聚于此,人文历史在这里沉淀,成为一处值得探索、游赏和爱护的景观。     

Causes of habitat loss in a Neotropical landscape: The Panama Canal corridor

We studied drivers of habitat conversion in the Panama Canal region, where rich biodiversity in tropical rainforests currently coexists with two major growing cities and a plethora of economic opportunities. We examined existing administrative units (counties) with known biophysical (e.g., rainfall, topography) and socio-economic (e.g., population density, road density) characteristics. To identify associations between those characteristics and likelihood of habitat conversion to agriculture or urbanization, we used canonical correlation analysis. Two axes accounted for most of the variation among administrative units: one for urbanization and the other for agriculture. Rainfall and topography were negatively associated with urbanization, whereas population wealth was positively associated with land conversion to urban. Agriculture was most strongly associated with elevation variability and topographic complexity. To a lesser extent, agriculture was associated with rural population density, mean annual human population growth and poverty level. We hypothesize that most future habitat loss in the Panama Canal region will be from urbanization as Panama City expands and populations grow along the highway system. Decision-makers will need to emphasize preservation of forests on the edge of developments, where risk of loss is highest. These forested lands tend to become more expensive as urbanization approaches, putting them at greater risk of being converted. Nevertheless, they are still important for protection of the Canal watershed and the high levels of biodiversity in watershed forests. Land planners and decision-makers should consider the influence of socio-economic and biophysical factors when selecting forests to protect for conservation.     

Identifying regional landscapes for conservation planning: a case study from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The application of landscape ecology in conservation biology has rarely occurred in the context of defined landscapes. Conservation planning has focussed on representation of species diversity patterns and assumed that ecosystems, landscapes and their associated processes will be equally protected. The long-term persistence of biodiversity in the face of land transformations and global change requires the representation and retention of all elements of biodiversity. This biodiversity includes landscapes, and the landscape structure and processes that maintain patterns of biodiversity. We developed a method of classifying landscapes for the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The process entailed the use of 1 km² grid data from climate and terrain databases. Principal components analysis coupled with a cluster classification method and spatial overlay techniques were used to identify two hierarchical levels of landscapes. Validation analysis showed that landscapes are identifiable with a classification accuracy of 86.8%. The derived landscapes can be combined separately with data on vegetation and soil to describe landscape ecosystems that potentially differ in species composition, successional dynamics, and potential productivity. The surrogate use of the landscapes in conjunction with other strategic data, for the identification of priority conservation areas, is demonstrated.     

自然之风吹进校园——沈阳建筑大学野草景观调查与研究

以沈阳建筑大学作为调研对象,通过用文献资料的查阅和实地踏勘的方法对校园野草分布现状和已形成的野草景观进行深入的调查,根据校园区域的划分对校园野草景观类型进行归纳,比较校园野草在各个微环境中的生长状况和景观效果,试分析出野草在校园生境中的生态作用和景观价值,并且提出野草景观的具体实施手段和应用策略,提出对野草进行分级分区的科学管理方法,从而使校园部分区域加速近自然群落的形成,营造大学校园质朴的氛围,更加有效的节约用于清除野草所消耗的人力物力。     

Using Landscape Characteristics for Targeting Habitat Conservation and Restoration: A case study of ancient semi-natural woodland in the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty,UK

Ancient semi-natural deciduous woodland is a rare and threatened habitat cited by the European Union's Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Current protection of this endangered habitat in the UK takes the form of site-specific reserve designations but, if the habitat is to be conserved and enhanced, a landscape-scale selective targeting system is required. In the absence of suitable species data, physical attributes of habitat patches are used as surrogate indicators of biodiversity. Using a land-use database held on a geographical information system, values of four abiotic criteria (patch area, patch shape, nearest-neighbour distance and surrounding land use) of 48 ancient semi-natural woodland patches in part of the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty were calculated. In order to validate the findings, three lists of floral and faunal species, indicative of ancient semi-natural woodland, were compiled, and the patches ranked according to their alpha diversity using each list. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were calculated for patch alpha diversity and patch area (0.322 to 0.482), patch shape (0.275 to 0.465) and nearest-neighbour distance ( - 0.092 to - 0.223). Multiple regression indicated that between 15 and 22% of the variation in alpha patch diversity was explained by the abiotic factors. It is suggested that spatial targeting at the landscape scale is a valuable approach to habitat conservation.     

Ecological networks as a new approach for nature conservation in Turkey: A case study of İzmir Province

This paper aims to identify and evaluate a potential ecological network including core areas and large-scale corridors in the İzmir Province and its surrounding areas, Turkey. It is one of the first studies on the connectivity for mammal species and the detection of potential ecological corridors for Turkey. Four wide-ranging species (Hyaena hyaena, Lynx lynx, Caracal caracal, and Felis chaus) have been chosen as target species. Existing Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) and surrounding lands have been evaluated based on a three criteria: (1) vegetation/habitat types, (2) carrying capacity and (3) road density using simple GIS-based models.The results are evaluated using the Minimum Viable Metapopulation (MVMP) standards. No KBA in the study region has a Key Population (KP) or Minimum Viable Population (MVP) with the exception of Boz Dağlar. Least cost-path analysis has been applied to identify linkages between KBAs relevant for the four target species. The conclusion is that it is possible to maintain MVPs in the region when the KBAs are linked by ecological corridors.     

Natural freezing as a wastewater treatment method: E. coli inactivation capacity

Inactivation capacity of E. coli (strain ATCC 15597) in water by natural freezing was examined via two freezing methods: spray freezing and freezing in a freezer. The effect of freezing temperature (-5, -15 and -35 degrees C), storage time, freeze-thaw cycles on the survival of the test organism were investigated. In addition, the number of cells injured by the freezing process was also examined by using different growth media. The bacteria frozen at the warmer temperature (-5 degrees C) was most sensitive to storage and freeze-thaw cycles as compared to those frozen at -15 and -35 degrees C. In general, greater inactivation efficiencies were achieved under longer storage time and warmer freezing temperature conditions. Freezing and thawing caused cell injury. More cells were injured when frozen at -15 degrees C. The percentage of cells injured decreased as freeze-thaw cycles increased. The spray-freezing process was found more effective in killing the cells. On average, the log reduction rate for the spray ice with two-day storage time was about 4 log units higher than those without any storage after freezing. The results indicated that the natural freezing processes are not only cost-effective techniques for chemical and physical contaminant removal from wastewater or enhancing sludge dewaterability in cold regions but also effective in reducing E. coli concentration.     

Using Landscape Characteristics for Targeting Habitat Conservation and Restoration: a case study of ancient semi-natural woodland in the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, UK

Ancient semi-natural deciduous woodland is a rare and threatened habitat cited by the European Union's Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Current protection of this endangered habitat in the UK takes the form of site-specific reserve designations but, if the habitat is to be conserved and enhanced, a landscape-scale selective targeting system is required. In the absence of suitable species data, physical attributes of habitat patches are used as surrogate indicators of biodiversity. Using a land-use database held on a geographical information system, values of four abiotic criteria (patch area, patch shape, nearest-neighbour distance and surrounding land use) of 48 ancient semi-natural woodland patches in part of the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty were calculated. In order to validate the findings, three lists of floral and faunal species, indicative of ancient semi-natural woodland, were compiled, and the patches ranked according to their alpha diversity using each list. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients were calculated for patch alpha diversity and patch area (0.322 to 0.482), patch shape (0.275 to 0.465) and nearest-neighbour distance ( - 0.092 to - 0.223). Multiple regression indicated that between 15 and 22% of the variation in alpha patch diversity was explained by the abiotic factors. It is suggested that spatial targeting at the landscape scale is a valuable approach to habitat conservation.