The relative time course of semantic and phonological activation in reading Chinese.

The relative time course of semantic and phonological activation was investigated in the context of whether phonology mediates access to lexical representations in reading Chinese. Compound words (Experiment 1) and single-character words (Experiments 2 and 3) were preceded by semantic and phonological primes. Strong semantic priming effects were found at both short (57 ms) and long (200 ms) stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA), but phonological effects were either absent in lexical decision (Experiment 1), were present only at the longer SOA in character decision (Experiment 2) or were equally strong as semantic effects in naming (Experiment 3). Experiment 4 revealed facilitatory or inhibitory effects, depending on SOA, in phonological judgments to character pairs that were not phonologically but semantically related. It was concluded that, in reading Chinese, semantic information in the lexicon is activated at least as early and just as strongly as phonological information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming in young and older adults: Evidence for age constancy in automatic and attentional processes.

Automatic and attentional components of semantic priming and the relation of each to episodic memory were evaluated in young and older adults. Category names served as prime words, and the relatedness of the prime to a subsequent lexical decision target was varied orthogonally with whether the target category was expected or unexpected. At a prime-target stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) of 410 ms, target words in the same category had faster lexical decision latencies than did different category targets. This effect was not significant at a 1,550-ms SOA and was attributed to automatic processes. Expected category targets had faster latencies than unexpected category targets at the 410-ms SOA, and the magnitude of the effect increased at the 1,550-ms SOA. This effect was attributed to attentional processes. These patterns of priming were obtained for both age groups, but in a surprise memory test older adults had poorer recall of primes and targets. We discuss the implications of these results for the hypothesis that older adults suffer deficits in selective attention and for the related hypothesis that attentional deficits impair semantic processing, which causes memory decrements in old age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time-course analysis of semantic and orthographic context effects in picture naming.

In Experiment 1, the authors used a picture-word task to investigate the time courses of semantic interference, orthographic facilitation, and their interaction. Five stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs), from -200 ms (word first) to 200 ms, in steps of 100 ms were used. The results show that the semantic interference effect was restricted to a small SOA range around zero, that the orthographic facilitation effect almost spanned the whole SOA range used, and finally, that the two effects modified each other. The authors present a connectionist model based on W. R. Glaser and M. O. Glaser's (see record 1989-24812-001) model that is able to simulate the experimental results. In Experiment 2, a prediction of the model was tested and supported. The findings support a word-form retrieval account of context effects in picture naming and are discussed in relation to alternative accounts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On obtaining episodic priming in a lexical decision task following paired-associate learning.

In four experiments, subjects made lexical (word-nonword) decisions to target letter strings after studying paired associates. In this lexical decision test, word targets previously studied as response terms in the paired associates were preceded at a 150-ms and/or 950-ms stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) by one of various subsets of the following six types of primes: (a) a neutral ({xxx} or {ready}) prime, (b) a semantically unrelated word prime episodically related to the target through its having been previously studied in the same pair, (c) a semantically related word prime previously studied in a pair with some other unrelated word, (d) a semantically unrelated word prime previously studied in a pair with some other unrelated word, (e) a nonstudied semantically related word prime, and (f) a nonstudied semantically unrelated word prime. At the 950-ms SOA, facilitation of lexical decisions produced by the episodically related primes was greater in test lists in which there were (a) no 150-ms SOA trials intermixed, (b) no previously studied semantically related primes, and (c) no studied nonword targets. At the 150-ms SOA, facilitation from episodic priming was greater in test lists in which there were (a) no semantically related primes and (b) all studied word targets and no studied nonword targets. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic and phonological information flow in the production lexicon.

When speakers produce words, lexical access proceeds through semantic and phonological levels of processing. If phonological processing begins based on partial semantic information, processing is cascaded; otherwise, it is discrete. In standard models of lexical access, semantically processed words exert phonological effects only if processing is cascaded. In 3 experiments, speakers named pictures of objects with homophone names (ball), while auditory distractor words were heard beginning 150 ms prior to picture onset. Distractors speeded picture naming (compared with controls) only when related to the nondepicted meaning of the picture (e.g., dance), exhibiting an early phonological effect, thereby supporting the cascaded prediction. Distractors slowed picture naming when categorically (e.g., frisbee) related to the depicted picture meaning, but not when associatively (e.g., game) related to it. An interactive activation model is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is there semantic interference in delayed naming?

The semantic interference effect in the picture–word interference task is interpreted as an index of lexical competition in prominent speech production models. Janssen, Schirm, Mahon, and Caramazza (2008) challenged this interpretation on the basis of experiments with a novel version of this task, which introduced a task-switching component. Participants either named the picture or read the word, depending on the word's color. Janssen et al. reported semantic interference in picture naming, regardless of whether the word appeared simultaneously with the picture (immediate naming) or 1,000 ms after the picture (delayed naming). Because picture name retrieval is completed in less than 1,000 ms, the finding in delayed naming was taken as evidence against the lexical competition account. In 3 sets of experiments conducted in German and English, we tested for semantic effects in Janssen et al.'s task-switching version and in the standard picture–word interference task. Using identical materials, we obtained sizeable interference effects in the standard task (Experiments 2, 4, and 6) but no effects in the task-switching version (Experiments 1, 3, and 5). When the word reading trials of the task-switching version were replaced with no-go trials (Experiment 7), semantic interference reemerged in immediate naming but was still absent in delayed naming. The experiments question the reliability of Janssen et al.'s critical finding and suggest that theoretical inferences about the origin of semantic effects in the standard picture–word interference task based on results from the task-switching version used by Janssen et al. are difficult to draw. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identity priming in English is compromised by phonological ambiguity.

If it takes longer to achieve a single phonological representation for inconsistent words (e.g., BOWL) than for consistent words (e.g., BENT), and if phonological coherence is pivotal to visual word recognition, then identity priming should depend on consistency. This hypothesis was evaluated in naming and lexical decision within a 4-field presentation sequence of mask-prime-mask-target. The prime-target stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) was either 114 or 244 ms (with prime durations, respectively, of 43 and 129 ms). Four experiments compared identity primes such as BOWL and BENT, which were equated, on average, for total number of friendly and unfriendly neighbors, bigram frequency, and number of 1-letter-different neighbors. In both tasks, BENT primed itself better than BOWL primed itself, with the difference being larger at the shorter SOA. Word processing is constrained primarily by the rate of achieving a coherent phonological code. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention constraints of semantic activation during visual word recognition.

The reduction of semantic priming following letter search of the prime suggests that semantic activation can be blocked if attention is allocated to the letter level during word processing. Is this true even for the very fast-acting component of semantic activation? To test this, the authors explored semantic priming of lexical decision at stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) of either 200 or 1000 ms. Following semantic prime processing, priming occurred at both SOAs. In contrast, no priming occurred at the long SOA following letter-level processing. Of greatest interest, at the short SOA there was priming following the less demanding consonant/vowel task but not following the more attention-demanding letter search task. Hence, semantic activation can occur even when attention is directed to the letter level, provided there are sufficient resources to support this activation. The authors conclude that the default setting during word recognition is for fast-acting activation of the semantic system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic and Phonological Context Effects in Speech Error Repair.

When speakers repair speech errors, they plan the repair in the context of an abandoned word (the error) that is usually similar in meaning or form. Two picture-naming experiments tested whether the error's lexical representations influence repair planning. Context pictures were sometimes replaced with target pictures; the picture names were related in meaning or form or were unrelated. The authors measured target picture-naming latencies separately for trials in which the context name was interrupted or completed. Interrupted trials showed semantic interference and phonological facilitation, whereas completed trials showed semantic facilitation and phonological interference. Thus, errors influence repair production. The authors explain the polarity of these effects in terms of the literature on context effects in word production. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of prime–probe stimulus onset asynchrony and prime precuing manipulations on semantic priming effects with words in a lexical-decision task.

The present research examines semantic priming from attended and unattended parafoveal words. Participants made a lexical decision in response to a single central target. The target was preceded by two parafoveal prime words, with one of them (the attended prime) being precued by a peripheral cue. The main variables manipulated across experiments were cue informativeness (valid vs. neutral cues) and stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between prime and probe (200, 300, 600, or 1,000 ms). The results showed (a) reliable semantic priming from both attended and ignored prime words and (b) that the ignored priming effects were either negative or positive, depending on both the prime-probe SOA and cue informativeness. The present findings are discussed in relation to inhibitory versus episodic retrieval models of negative priming. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing phonological and semantic ambiguity: Evidence from semantic priming at different SOAs.

Disambiguation of heterophonic and homophonic homographs was investigated in Hebrew using semantic priming. Ambiguous primes were followed by unambiguous targets at 100 msec, 250 msec, and 750 msec stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). Lexical decision for targets related to the dominant phonological alternatives of heterophonic homographs was facilitated at all SOAs. Targets related to subordinate alternatives were facilitated only at SOAs of 250 msec or longer. When the primes were homophonic homographs, semantic relationship facilitated lexical decision to targets at all SOAs regardless of the dominance of the meaning to which the targets were related. These data can be accounted for by assuming multiple lexical entries for heterophonic homographs, single lexical entries for homophonic homographs, and phonological mediation of accessing meanings. Language-specific factors probably account for the long-lasting activation of subordinate meanings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming and repetition priming from masked words: Evidence for a center-surround attentional mechanism in perceptual recognition.

Two lexical decision experiments compared semantic and repetition priming by masked words. Experiment 1 established prime–mask stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) with presence–absence detection judgments. Primes presented at detection-threshold SOAs produced equal facilitation for repeated and semantically related targets: 26 ms and 24 ms. Experiment 2 established SOAs with semantic judgments. Primes presented at 70% of the semantic-threshold SOA to mimic the exposure conditions of Experiment 1 produced slightly greater facilitation for repeated targets but a tendency toward inhibition for semantically related targets: 38 ms and –6 ms. These results confirm the D. Dagenbach et al (see record 1990-00392-001) report that strategies induced by threshold-setting tasks can influence masked priming. In addition, Experiment 2 suggests a mechanism for retrieving weakly activated semantic codes into consciousness that relies on the center-surround principle to enhance activation of sought-for codes and to inhibit related codes stored nearby in the semantic network. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancy effects in social stereotyping: Automatic and controlled processing in the Neely paradigm.

This research attempted to extend the classic cognition study, Neely (1977), to the domain of social stereotypes. Neely demonstrated the existence of automatic and controlled processing in the same paradigm and the differing effects these processes have on accessing category information. The current research extended these findings by using social groups and stereotypes as stimuli, rather than nonsocial categories. Participants were told to expect characteristics of the Black stereotype following the prime CHINESE, characteristics of the Chinese stereotype following the prime BLACK, and characteristics of the criminal stereotype following the prime CRIMINAL. These expectancies were true most of the time. Participants then completed a lexical decision task in which SOA was manipulated (250 vs. 2,000 ms). Participants responded faster to semantically related targets (i.e., stereotypes) in the 250-ms SOA condition, regardless of their explicit expectancies. In the 2,000-ms SOA condition, participants responded faster to expected targets than to unexpected targets, regardless of whether or not the targets were semantically related to the primes. When the data from the two conditions were combined, the expectancy effect remained whereas the semantic relation effect did not. Results are discussed in terms of the automatic and controlled processing of social stimuli, and the importance of understanding expectancies in social stereotyping. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The time course of graphic, phonological, and semantic activation in Chinese character identification.

In reading, lexical form–form relations may be more reliable then form–meaning relations. Accordingly, phonological forms (activated by graphic forms) become actual constituents, rather than addenda, of word identification. These considerations suggest that access to phonological forms can precede meaning access in single-word reading in many circumstances. The time course of form and meaning activation during Chinese word reading was tested in 2 primed-naming experiments varying prime type and prime-target stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). The results showed a sequence of facilitation over SOA: (a) graphic, (b) phonological, (c) semantic. Words with precise meanings produced more rapid semantic priming than words with vague meanings. Graphic prime facilitation at a 43-ms SOA gave way to inhibition at longer SOAs. The onset of graphic inhibition coincided with the onset of phonological facilitation, suggesting a single identification moment. The authors describe an interactive constituency model that accounts for the pattern of data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

List-context effects in evaluative priming.

Evaluative priming effects are often found in the evaluative decision task, in which persons judge the affective connotation (positive vs. negative) of a target word. The present experiments examined list-context effects to test whether evaluative and semantic priming follow the same laws. In Experiment 1, evaluative priming was found at prime-target stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) of 0 ms and 100 ms, but not at SOAs of -100, 200, 600, and 1,200 ms. Experiment 2 manipulated SOA (0, 200, and 1,200 ms) and the proportion (25%, 50%, and 75%) of the prime-target pairs that were evaluatively related. Contrary to the typical finding that increases in the proportion of related prime-target pairs lead to increased priming at long but not short SOAs, an effect of consistency proportion was found at SOAs of 0 ms (for reaction times) and 200 ms (in the accuracy data), but not at the 1,200-ms SOA. The pattern of results is discussed in relation to possible explanatory mechanisms of evaluative priming. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Better to take one long or two quick looks? Independent processing of evidence from discrete visual presentations.

Should we prefer one long look to two quick looks of equal overall duration? The authors systematically compared conditions in which a circular letter array was available either for a single look of 2d ms duration (onset asynchrony [SOA] from target to mask) or for two separate looks of d ms each. On the basis of the geometry of the underlying psychometric function relating the SOA to the probability of target identification, separate activation models with peaked hazard functions predict that for short SOAs single long looks would lead to better identification performance and that this advantage decreases (and may turn into a disadvantage) with increasing SOA. These predictions were tested, confirmed, and extended in 5 letter-identification experiments that focused on the mechanism by which information extracted from single arrays is integrated across different looks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Increased priming interference at a long SOA with brief masked targets.

Tests prediction of a model of priming proposed by B. E. McLeod and R. E. Walley (1989) in which interference (ITF) is caused by inhibitory processes between nodes in semantic memory. This model predicts that ITF normally found in a high cue validity condition at long stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) will be considerably increased when a brief target is masked. 80 male and female, native English-speaking Ss participated; within S variables were prime type, prime relatedness, and target condition. 192 trials were given in 2 blocks of 96 trials; 25% were nonword trials. The task was a primed lexical decision with an SOA of 800 ms. Cue validity was high or low; targets were brief, masked in either block 1 or block 2 of trials. In the high cue validity condition, both reaction time (RT) and error data show increased ITF when the brief target was masked. Results confirm that target node activation is considerably reduced. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Syllabic priming in lexical decision and naming tasks: The syllable congruency effect re-examined in French.

This study investigated the role of the syllable in visual recognition of French words. The syllable congruency procedure was combined with masked priming in the lexical-decision task (Experiments 1 and 3) and the naming task (Experiment 2). Target words were preceded by a nonword prime sharing the first three letters that either corresponded to the syllable (congruent condition), or not (incongruent condition). When primes were displayed for 67 ms, similar results were found in both the lexical decision and the naming tasks. Consonant-vowel targets such as BA.LANCE were recognised more rapidly in the congruent condition than in the incongruent and control conditions, while consonant-vowel-consonant targets such as BAL.CON were recognised more rapidly in the congruent and incongruent conditions than in the control condition. When a 43-ms SOA was used in the lexical-decision task, no significant priming effect was obtained. The results are discussed in an interactive-activation model incorporating syllable units. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of backward priming on word recognition in single-word and sentence contexts.

Backward priming was investigated under conditions similar to those used in lexical ambiguity research. Ss received prime-target word pairs that were associated either unidirectionally (BABY-STORK) or bidirectionally (BABY-CRY). In Exp 1, targets were presented 500 ms following the onset of visual primes, and Ss made naming or lexical decision responses to the targets. Forward priming was obtained in all conditions, while backward priming occurred only with lexical decision. In Exp 2, primes were presented auditorily, either in isolation or in a sentence. Targets followed the offset of the primes either immediately or after 200 ms. Backward priming occurred with both response tasks, but only when the prime was an isolated word. Backward priming decreased over time with the naming task, but not with lexical decision. These results suggest that the locus of the backward priming effect is different for the 2 response tasks. Results support a context-independent view of lexical access. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age-related differences in lexical access, spreading activation, and simple pronunciation.

An experiment was conducted to address age-related differences in lexical access, spreading activation, and pronunciation. Both young and older adults participated in a delayed pronunciation task to trace the time course of lexical access and a semantic priming task to trace the time course of spreading activation. In the delayed pronunciation task, subjects were presented a word and then, after varying delays, were presented a cue to pronounce the word aloud. Older adults benefited considerably more from the preexposure to the word than did the younger adults, suggesting an age-related difference in lexical access time. In the semantic priming pronunciation task, semantic relatedness (related vs. neutral), strength of the relationship (high vs. low), and prime–target stimulus onset asynchrony (200 ms, 350 ms, 500 ms, 650 ms, and 800 ms) were factorially crossed with age to investigate age-related differences in the buildup of semantic activation across time. The results from this task indicated that the activation pattern of the older adults closely mimicked that of the younger adults. Finally, the results of both tasks indicated that older adults were slower at both their onset to pronounce and their actual production durations (i.e., from onset to offset) in the pronunciation task. The results were interpreted as suggesting that input and output processes are slowed with age, but that the basic retrieval mechanism of spreading activation is spared by age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)