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1.
MRI-based assessment of liver perfusion and hepatocyte injury in the murine model of acute hepatitis
Katarzyna Byk Krzysztof Jasinski Zaneta Bartel Agnieszka Jasztal Barbara Sitek Boguslaw Tomanek Stefan Chlopicki Tomasz Skorka 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2016,29(6):789-798
Objective
To assess alterations in perfusion and liver function in the concanavalin A (ConA)-induced mouse model of acute liver failure (ALF) using two magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based methods: dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI) with Gd-EOB-DTPA contrast agent and arterial spin labelling (ASL).Materials and methods
BALB/c mice were studied using a 9.4 T MRI system. The IntraGateFLASHTM and FAIR-EPI pulse sequences were used for optimum mouse abdomen imaging.Results
The average perfusion values for the liver of the control and ConA group were equal to 245 ± 20 and 200 ± 32 ml/min/100 g (p = 0.008, respectively). DCE-MRI showed that the time to the peak of the image enhancement was 6.14 ± 1.07 min and 9.72 ± 1.69 min in the control and ConA group (p < 0.001, respectively), while the rate of the contrast wash-out in the control and ConA group was 0.037 ± 0.008 and 0.021 ± 0.008 min?1 (p = 0.004, respectively). These results were consistent with hepatocyte injury in the ConA-treated mice as confirmed by histopathological staining.Conclusions
Both the ASL and DCE-MRI techniques represent a reliable methodology to assess alterations in liver perfusion and hepatocyte integrity in murine hepatitis.2.
Objective
To accelerate super-selective arterial spin labeling (ASL) angiography by using a single control condition denoted as cycled super-selective arterial spin labeling.Materials and methods
A single non-selective control image is acquired that is shared by selective label images. Artery-selective imaging is possible by geometrically changing the position of the labeling focus to more than one artery of interest during measurement. The presented approach is compared to conventional super-selective imaging in terms of its labeling efficiency inside and outside the labeling focus using numerical simulations and in vivo measurements. Additionally, the signal-to-noise ratios of the images are compared to non-selective ASL angiography and analyzed using a two-way ANOVA test and calculating the Pearson’s correlation coefficients.Results
The results indicate that the labeling efficiency is not reduced within the labeled artery, but can increase as a function of distance to the artery of interest when compared to conventional super-selective ASL. In the final images, no statistically significant difference of image quality can be observed while the acquisition duration could be reduced when the major brain feeding arteries are being tagged.Conclusion
Using super-selective arterial spin labeling, a single non-selective control acquisition suffices for reconstructing selective angiograms of the cerebral vasculature, thereby accelerating image acquisition of the major intracranial arteries without notable loss of information.3.
Bernhard Neumayer Eva Amerstorfer Clemens Diwoky Richard A. Lindtner Elisabeth Wadl Eva Scheurer Annelie-Martina Weinberg Rudolf Stollberger 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2017,30(5):417-427
Objectives
Bone bridge formation occurs after physeal lesions and can lead to growth arrest if not reversed. Previous investigations on the underlying mechanisms of this formation used histological methods. Therefore, this study aimed to apply a minimally invasive method using dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI).Materials and methods
Changes in functional parameters related to the microvessel system were assessed in a longitudinal study of a cohort of an animal model applying a reference region model. The development of morphology of the injured physis was investigated with 3D high-resolution MRI. To acquire complementary information for MRI-related findings qRT-PCR and immunohistochemical data were acquired for a second cohort of the animal model.Results
The evaluation of the pharmacokinetic parameters showed a first rise of the transfer coefficient 7 days post-lesion and a maximum 42 days after operation. The analysis of the complementary data showed a connection of the first rise to microvessel proliferation while the maximum value was linked to bone remodeling.Conclusion
The pharmacokinetic analysis of DCE-MRI provides information on a proliferation of microvessels during the healing process as a sign for bone bridge formation. Thereby, DCE-MRI could identify details, which up to now required analyses of highly invasive methods.4.
Objective
In arterial spin labeling (ASL), the cardiac cycle might adversely influence signal-stability by varying the amount of label created, labeling efficiency and/or transport times. Due to the long labeling duration in pseudo-Continuous ASL (pCASL), the blood labeled last contributes most to the ASLsignal. The present study investigated, using numerical simulations and in vivo experiments, the effect of the cardiac cycle on pCASL, thereby focusing on the end-of-labeling.Materials and methods
In the in vivo experiments the end-of-labeling was timed to a specific cardiac phase while a long labeling duration of >7 s was used to isolate the influence of the lastly labeled spins on ASL-signal stability.Results
Simulations showed dependence of the ASL-signal on the cardiac phase of the end-of-labeling, and that the variation in signal was more pronounced at lower heart rates. The ASL-signal variation was small (~4%), but could be effectively reduced by simulated end-of-labeling triggering. In vivo, no difference in mean CBF (p = 0.58) nor in CBF temporal-STD (p = 0.44) could be detected between triggered and non-triggered acquisitions.Conclusion
Influence of the cardiac cycle on pCASL-signal stability is small and triggering the start-of-labeling and end-of-labeling can be considered not to have practical implications to improve stability.5.
Houchun H. Hu Amber L. Pokorney Niccolo Stefani Jonathan M. Chia Jeffrey H. Miller 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2017,30(2):107-112
Objective
We demonstrate the potential clinical utility of a 4D non-gadolinium dynamic angiography technique based on arterial spin-labeling called contrast inherent inflow enhanced multi-phase angiography (CINEMA) in pediatric patients.Materials and Methods
CINEMA was qualitatively compared to conventional time-of-flight (TOF) angiography in a cohort of 31 pediatric patients at 3 Tesla.Results
CINEMA data were successfully acquired and reconstructed in all patients with no image artifacts. There were no cases where CINEMA was rated inferior to TOF in depicting intracranial vessel conspicuity. In 19 cases, CINEMA was rated equivalent to TOF and in the 12 remaining cases CINEMA was rated superior to TOF.Conclusion
There is a steadily rising concern in adults and children over the potential effects of intracranial deposition of gadolinium. CINEMA is therefore a viable alternative in dynamic neurovascular imaging.6.
Jan Petr Henri J. M. M. Mutsaerts Rebecca M. E. Steketee Marion Smits Aart J. Nederveen Frank Hofheinz Jörg van den Hoff Iris Asllani 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2018,31(6):725-734
Objective
Partial volume (PV) correction is an important step in arterial spin labeling (ASL) MRI that is used to separate perfusion from structural effects when computing the mean gray matter (GM) perfusion. There are three main methods for performing this correction: (1) GM-threshold, which includes only voxels with GM volume above a preset threshold; (2) GM-weighted, which uses voxel-wise GM contribution combined with thresholding; and (3) PVC, which applies a spatial linear regression algorithm to estimate the flow contribution of each tissue at a given voxel. In all cases, GM volume is obtained using PV maps extracted from the segmentation of the T1-weighted (T1w) image. As such, PV maps contain errors due to the difference in readout type and spatial resolution between ASL and T1w images. Here, we estimated these errors and evaluated their effect on the performance of each PV correction method in computing GM cerebral blood flow (CBF).Materials and methods
Twenty-two volunteers underwent scanning using 2D echo planar imaging (EPI) and 3D spiral ASL. For each PV correction method, GM CBF was computed using PV maps simulated to contain estimated errors due to spatial resolution mismatch and geometric distortions which are caused by the mismatch in readout between ASL and T1w images. Results were analyzed to assess the effect of each error on the estimation of GM CBF from ASL data.Results
Geometric distortion had the largest effect on the 2D EPI data, whereas the 3D spiral was most affected by the resolution mismatch. The PVC method outperformed the GM-threshold even in the presence of combined errors from resolution mismatch and geometric distortions. The quantitative advantage of PVC was 16% without and 10% with the combined errors for both 2D and 3D ASL. Consistent with theoretical expectations, for error-free PV maps, the PVC method extracted the true GM CBF. In contrast, GM-weighted overestimated GM CBF by 5%, while GM-threshold underestimated it by 16%. The presence of PV map errors decreased the calculated GM CBF for all methods.Conclusion
The quality of PV maps presents no argument for the preferential use of the GM-threshold method over PVC in the clinical application of ASL.7.
Ronnie Wirestam Emelie Lind André Ahlgren Freddy Ståhlberg Linda Knutsson 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2016,29(6):823-831
Objectives
Contrast agent (CA) relaxivities are generally not well established in vivo, and the relationship between frequency/phase shift and magnetic susceptibility might be a useful alternative for CA quantification.Materials and methods
Twenty volunteers (25–84 years old) were investigated using test–retest pre-bolus dynamic susceptibility-contrast (DSC) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The pre-bolus phase-based venous output function (VOF) time integral was used for arterial input function (AIF) rescaling. Resulting cerebral blood flow (CBF) data for grey matter (GM) were compared with pseudo-continuous arterial spin labelling (ASL). During the main bolus CA passage, the apparent spatial shift (pixel shift) of the superior sagittal sinus (seen in single-shot echo-planar imaging (EPI)) was converted to CA concentration and compared with conventional ΔR2*-based data and with a predicted phase-based VOF from the pre-bolus experiment.Results
The phase-based pre-bolus VOF resulted in a reasonable inter-individual GM CBF variability (coefficient of variation 28 %). Comparison with ASL CBF values implied a tissue R2*-relaxivity of 32 mM?1 s?1. Pixel-shift data at low concentrations (data not available at peak concentrations) were in reasonable agreement with the predicted phase-based VOF.Conclusion
Susceptibility-induced phase shifts and pixel shifts are potentially useful for large-vein CA quantification. Previous predictions of a higher R2*-relaxivity in tissue than in blood were supported.8.
Objectives
Acceleration selective arterial spin labeling (AccASL) is a spatially non-selective labeling technique, used in traditional ASL methods, which labels spins based on their flow acceleration rather than spatial localization. The exact origin of the AccASL signal within the vasculature is not completely understood. To obtain more insight into this, the acceleration selective module was performed followed by a velocity selective module, which is used in velocity selective arterial spin labeling (VS-ASL).Materials and methods
Nine healthy volunteers were scanned with various combinations of the control and label conditions in both the acceleration and velocity selective module. The cut-off acceleration (0.59 m/s2) or velocity (2 cm/s) was kept constant in one module, while it was varied over a large range in the other module. With the right subtractions this resulted in AccASL, VS-ASL, combined AccASL and VS-ASL signal, and signal from one module with crushing from the other.Results
The label created with AccASL has an overlap of approximately 50% in the vascular region with VS-ASL, but also originates from smaller vessels closer to the capillaries.Conclusion
AccASL is able to label spins both in the macro- and meso-vasculature, as well as in the microvasculature.9.
Fabian Zimmer Kieran O’Brien Steffen Bollmann Josef Pfeuffer Keith Heberlein Markus Barth 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2016,29(3):463-473
Objective
Arterial spin labelling (ASL) techniques benefit from the increased signal-to-noise ratio and the longer T 1 relaxation times available at ultra-high field. Previous pulsed ASL studies at 7 T concentrated on the superior regions of the brain because of the larger transmit radiofrequency inhomogeneity experienced at ultra-high field that hinders an adequate inversion of the blood bolus when labelling in the neck. Recently, researchers have proposed to overcome this problem with either the use of dielectric pads, through dedicated transmit labelling coils, or special adiabatic inversion pulses.Materials and methods
We investigate the performance of an optimised time-resampled frequency-offset corrected inversion (TR-FOCI) pulse designed to cause inversion at much lower peak B 1 + . In combination with a PICORE labelling, the perfusion signal obtained with this pulse is compared against that obtained with a FOCI pulse, with and without dielectric pads.Results
Mean grey matter perfusion with the TR-FOCI was 52.5 ± 10.3 mL/100 g/min, being significantly higher than the 34.6 ± 2.6 mL/100 g/min obtained with the FOCI pulse. No significant effect of the dielectric pads was observed.Conclusion
The usage of the B 1 + -optimised TR-FOCI pulse results in a significantly higher perfusion signal. PICORE–ASL is feasible at ultra-high field with no changes to operating conditions.10.
Yuan Le Marcel Dominik Nickel Stephan Kannengiesser Berthold Kiefer Bruce Spottiswoode Brian Dale Victor Soon Chen Lin 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2018,31(2):309-320
Objective
To develop a novel framework for evaluating the accuracy of quantitative analysis on dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE) MRI with a specific combination of imaging technique, scanning parameters, and scanner and software performance and to test this framework with breast DCE MRI with Time-resolved angiography WIth Stochastic Trajectories (TWIST).Materials and methods
Realistic breast tumor phantoms were 3D printed as cavities and filled with solutions of MR contrast agent. Full k-space raw data of individual tumor phantoms and a uniform background phantom were acquired. DCE raw data were simulated by sorting the raw data according to TWIST view order and scaling the raw data according to the enhancement based on pharmaco-kinetic (PK) models. The measured spatial and temporal characteristics from the images reconstructed using the scanner software were compared with the original PK model (ground truth).Results
Images could be reconstructed using the manufacturer’s platform with the modified ‘raw data.’ Compared with the ‘ground truth,’ the RMS error in all images was <10% in most cases. With increasing view-sharing acceleration, the error of the initial uptake slope decreased while the error of peak enhancement increased. Deviations of PK parameters varied with the type of enhancement.Conclusion
A new framework has been developed and tested to more realistically evaluate the quantitative measurement errors caused by a combination of the imaging technique, parameters and scanner and software performance in DCE-MRI.11.
Yan Li Angela Jakary Erin Gillung Stuart Eisendrath Sarah J. Nelson Pratik Mukherjee Tracy Luks 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2016,29(3):523-533
Objectives
Our aim was to evaluate differences in metabolite levels between unmedicated patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) and healthy controls, to assess changes in metabolites in patients after they completed an 8-week course of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), and to exam the correlation between metabolites and depression severity.Materials and methods
Sixteen patients with MDD and ten age- and gender-matched healthy controls were studied using 3D short echo-time (20 ms) magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) at 7 Tesla. Relative metabolite ratios were estimated in five regions of interest corresponding to insula, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), caudate, putamen, and thalamus.Results
In all cases, MBCT reduced severity of depression. The ratio of total choline-containing compounds/total creatine (tCr) in the right caudate was significantly increased compared to that in healthy controls, while ratios of N-acetyl aspartate (NAA)/tCr in the left ACC, myo-inositol/tCr in the right insula, and glutathione/tCr in the left putamen were significantly decreased. At baseline, the severity of depression was negatively correlated with my-inositol/tCr in the left insula and putamen. The improvement in depression severity was significantly associated with changes in NAA/tCr in the left ACC.Conclusions
This study has successfully evaluated regional differences in metabolites for patients with MDD who received MBCT treatment and in controls using 7 Tesla MRSI.12.
Tora Dunås Anders Wåhlin Khalid Ambarki Laleh Zarrinkoob Richard Birgander Jan Malm Anders Eklund 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2016,29(1):39-47
Objectives
In order to introduce 4D flow magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as a standard clinical instrument for studying the cerebrovascular system, new and faster postprocessing tools are necessary. The objective of this study was to construct and evaluate a method for automatic identification of individual cerebral arteries in a 4D flow MRI angiogram.Materials and methods
Forty-six elderly individuals were investigated with 4D flow MRI. Fourteen main cerebral arteries were manually labeled and used to create a probabilistic atlas. An automatic atlas-based artery identification method (AAIM) was developed based on vascular-branch extraction and the atlas was used for identification. The method was evaluated by comparing automatic with manual identification in 4D flow MRI angiograms from 67 additional elderly individuals.Results
Overall accuracy was 93 %, and internal carotid artery and middle cerebral artery labeling was 100 % accurate. Smaller and more distal arteries had lower accuracy; for posterior communicating arteries and vertebral arteries, accuracy was 70 and 89 %, respectively.Conclusion
The AAIM enabled fast and fully automatic labeling of the main cerebral arteries. AAIM functionality provides the basis for creating an automatic and powerful method to analyze arterial cerebral blood flow in clinical routine.13.
Object
The objective of this study is to propose a modified VARiable PROjection (VARPRO) algorithm specifically tailored for fitting the intravoxel incoherent motion (IVIM) model to diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DW-MRI) data from locally advanced rectal cancer (LARC).Materials and methods
The proposed algorithm is compared with classical non-linear least squares (NLLS) analysis using the Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm and with two recently proposed algorithms for ‘segmented’ analysis. These latter two comprise two consecutive steps: first, a subset of parameters is estimated using a portion of data; second, the remaining parameters are estimated using the whole data and the previous estimates. The comparison between the algorithms was based on the \(R^2\) goodness-of-fit measure: performance analysis was carried out on real data obtained by DW-MRI on 40 LARC patients.Results
The performance of the proposed algorithm was higher than that of LM in 64 % of cases; ‘segmented’ methods were poorer than our algorithm in 100 % of cases.Conclusion
The proposed modified VARPRO algorithm can lead to better fit of the IVIM model to LARC DW-MRI data compared to other techniques.14.
Sophie Schumacher Florence Pache Judith Bellmann-Strobl Janina Behrens Petr Dusek Lutz Harms Klemens Ruprecht Petra Nytrova Sanjeev Chawla Thoralf Niendorf Ilya Kister Friedemann Paul Jens Wuerfel Tim Sinnecker 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2016,29(3):535-541
Objective
To quantify the periventricular venous density in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disease (NMOSD) in comparison to that in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and healthy control subjects.Materials and methods
Sixteen patients with NMOSD, 16 patients with MS and 16 healthy control subjects underwent 7.0-Tesla (7T) MRI. The imaging protocol included T2*-weighted (T2*w) fast low angle-shot (FLASH) and fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) sequences. The periventricular venous area (PVA) was manually determined by a blinded investigator in order to estimate the periventricular venous density in a region of interest-based approach.Results
No significant differences in periventricular venous density indicated by PVA were detectable in NMOSD versus healthy controls (p = 0.226). In contrast, PVA was significantly reduced in MS patients compared to healthy controls (p = 0.013).Conclusion
Unlike patients with MS, those suffering from NMOSD did not show reduced venous visibility. This finding may underscore primary and secondary pathophysiological differences between these two distinct diseases of the central nervous system.15.
Manushka V. Vaidya Cem M. Deniz Christopher M. Collins Daniel K. Sodickson Riccardo Lattanzi 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2018,31(3):355-366
Objective
To use high-permittivity materials (HPM) positioned near radiofrequency (RF) surface coils to manipulate transmit/receive field patterns.Materials and methods
A large HPM pad was placed below the RF coil to extend the field of view (FOV). The resulting signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) was compared with that of other coil configurations covering the same FOV in simulations and experiments at 7 T. Transmit/receive efficiency was evaluated when HPM discs with or without a partial shield were positioned at a distance from the coil. Finally, we evaluated the increase in transmit homogeneity for a four-channel array with HPM discs interposed between adjacent coil elements.Results
Various configurations of HPM increased SNR, transmit/receive efficiency, excitation/reception sensitivity overlap, and FOV when positioned near a surface coil. For a four-channel array driven in quadrature, shielded HPM discs enhanced the field below the discs as well as at the center of the sample as compared with other configurations with or without unshielded HPM discs.Conclusion
Strategically positioning HPM at a distance from a surface coil or array can increase the overlap between excitation/reception sensitivities, and extend the FOV of a single coil for reduction of the number of channels in an array while minimally affecting the SNR.16.
Objectives
To evaluate a new denoising method for MR spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) data based on selection of signal-related principal components (SSPCs) from principal components analysis (PCA).Materials and methods
A PCA-based method was implemented for selection of signal-related PCs and denoising achieved by reconstructing the original data set utilizing only these PCs. Performance was evaluated using simulated MRSI data and two volumetric in vivo MRSIs of human brain, from a normal subject and a patient with a brain tumor, using variable signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs), metabolite peak areas, Cramer-Rao bounds (CRBs) of fitted metabolite peak areas and metabolite linewidth.Results
In simulated data, SSPC determined the correct number of signal-related PCs. For in vivo studies, the SSPC denoising resulted in improved SNRs and reduced metabolite quantification uncertainty compared to the original data and two other methods for denoising. The method also performed very well in preserving the spectral linewidth and peak areas. However, this method performs better for regions that have larger numbers of similar spectra.Conclusion
The proposed SSPC denoising improved the SNR and metabolite quantification uncertainty in MRSI, with minimal compromise of the spectral information, and can result in increased accuracy.17.
Jason Langley Daniel E. Huddleston Christine J. Liu Xiaoping Hu 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2017,30(2):121-125
Objectives
The purpose of this study was to assess the reproducibility of substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and locus coeruleus (LC) delineation and measurement with neuromelanin-sensitive MRI.Materials and methods
Eleven subjects underwent two neuromelanin-sensitive MRI scans. SNpc and LC volumes were extracted for each scan. Reproducibility of volume and magnetization transfer contrast measurements in SNpc and LC was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and dice similarity coefficients (DSC).Results
SNpc and LC volume measurements showed excellent reproducibility (SNpc-ICC: 0.94, p < 0.001; LC-ICC: 0.96, p < 0.001). SNpc and LC were accurately delineated between scans (SNpc-DSC: 0.80 ± 0.03; LC-DSC: 0.63 ± 0.07).Conclusion
Neuromelanin-sensitive MRI can consistently delineate SNpc and LC.18.
Amandine Coum Lobna Ouldamer Fanny Noury Laurent Barantin Aymeric Saint-Hilaire Anne Vilde Philippe Bougnoux Giulio Gambarota 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2016,29(1):1-4
Objective
To evaluate the feasibility of in vivo measurement of the fatty acid (FA) composition of breast adipose tissue by MRS on a clinical platform.Material and methods
MRS experiments were performed at 3 T, using a STEAM sequence, on 25 patients diagnosed with breast cancer. MR spectra, acquired on healthy breast tissue, were analysed with the LCModel.Results
The measured values of the saturated fatty acid (SFA), mono-unsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and poly-unsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) fractions were 23.8 ± 7.1 %, 55.4 ± 6.8 % and 20.8 ± 4.4 %, respectively.The values of SFA, MUFA and PUFA observed in the current study are in the same range as those found in two previous studies performed at 7 T.Conclusion
The results of the current study show that it is possible to quantify the fatty acid composition of breast tissue in vivo in a clinical setting (3 T).19.
Maximilian N. Voelker Oliver Kraff Daniel Brenner Astrid Wollrab Oliver Weinberger Moritz C. Berger Simon Robinson Wolfgang Bogner Christopher Wiggins Robert Trampel Tony Stöcker Thoralf Niendorf Harald H. Quick David G. Norris Mark E. Ladd Oliver Speck 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2016,29(3):399-415
Objective
This study evaluates the inter-site and intra-site reproducibility of 7 Tesla brain imaging and compares it to literature values for other field strengths.Materials and methods
The same two subjects were imaged at eight different 7 T sites. MP2RAGE, TSE, TOF, SWI, EPI as well as B1 and B0 field maps were analyzed quantitatively to assess inter-site reproducibility. Intra-site reproducibility was measured with rescans at three sites.Results
Quantitative measures of MP2RAGE scans showed high agreement. Inter-site and intra-site reproducibility errors were comparable to 1.5 and 3 T. Other sequences also showed high reproducibility between the sites, but differences were also revealed. The different RF coils used were the main source for systematic differences between the sites.Conclusion
Our results show for the first time that multi-center brain imaging studies of the supratentorial brain can be performed at 7 T with high reproducibility and similar reliability as at 3T. This study develops the basis for future large-scale 7 T multi-site studies.20.
Haining Liu Gregory J. Wilson Niranjan Balu Jeffrey H. Maki Daniel S. Hippe Wei Wu Hiroko Watase Jinnan Wang Martin L. Gunn Chun Yuan 《Magma (New York, N.Y.)》2018,31(1):87-99