Structural Changes in the Vanadium Sample Surface Induced by Pulsed High-Temperature Deuterium Plasma and Deuterium Ion Fluxes

The structural changes in the vanadium sample surface are studied as functions of the conditions of irradiation by pulsed high-temperature deuterium plasma and deuterium ion fluxes in the Plasma Focus installation. It is found that processes of partial evaporation, melting, and crystallization of the surface layer of vanadium samples take place in the plasma flux power density range q = 10⁸–10¹⁰ W/cm² and the ion flux density range q = 10¹⁰–10¹² W/cm². The surface relief is wavelike. There are microcracks, gas-filled bubbles (blisters), and traces of fracture on the surface. The blisters are failed in the solid state. The character of blister fracture is similar to that observed during usual ion irradiation in accelerators. The samples irradiated at relatively low power density (q = 10⁷–10⁸ W/cm²) demonstrate the ejection of microparticles (surface fragments) on the side facing plasma. This process is assumed to be due to the fact that the unloading wave formed in the sample–target volume reaches its irradiated surface. Under certain irradiation conditions (sample–anode distance, the number of plasma pulses), a block microstructure with block sizes of several tens of microns forms on the sample surfaces. This structure is likely to form via directional crack propagation upon cooling of a thin melted surface layer.     

Effect of alloying and irradiation on the behavior of interstitial impurities in vanadium and V-Ga and V-Ti-Cr alloys

The effect of alloying and fast-neutron irradiation on the behavior of interstitial impurities in vanadium and V-Ga and V-Ti-Cr alloys is studied using low-frequency internal friction. It is found that, before irradiation, oxygen and nitrogen impurities in plain vanadium and V-Ga alloys are in a solid solution, whereas, in V-Ti and V-Ti-Cr alloys, they are predominantly fixed to form chemical compounds. Unlike the irradiation of plain vanadium, the irradiation of V-Ga alloys at 673 K to a neutron fluence of 4.24 × 10²⁵ m^?2 (E > 0.1 MeV) does not knock out oxygen and nitrogen impurities from interstitial positions in the lattice to the positions of radiation defects. In the V-5Ti-5Cr alloy, oxygen and nitrogen atoms are fixed before and after neutron irradiation according to these conditions.     

Revealing the Removal Mechanism of Vanadium Addition on Nitrogen Pores in 30Cr15Mo1N High-Nitrogen Steel Ingot

The removal mechanism of vanadium addition on nitrogen pores in 30Cr15Mo1N ingot is systematically investigated through statistical analysis and theoretical calculation. The nitrogen solubility is obtained by the thermodynamic model, and the nitrogen content is obtained by combining the ProCAST software and the C–K model. Then, according to the formula of critical nucleation radius and growth rate of nitrogen bubbles, the variation of critical nucleation radius and growth rate of nitrogen bubbles with different vanadium contents is calculated. As the vanadium content increases, the number and mean area of nitrogen pores decrease. In comparison to the 0 V ingot, the number of nitrogen pores decreases in the 0.2 V ingot, but there is an increase in the number of large-sized nitrogen pores (>3000 μm in diameter). When the vanadium content increases to 0.4, the nitrogen pores are completely removed. The results demonstrate that increasing vanadium content can remove nitrogen pores. Since the solidification mode remains unchanged with increasing vanadium content, increasing the vanadium content cannot remove nitrogen pores by changing the solidification mode of the 30Cr15Mo1N ingots. Therefore, increasing the vanadium content removes the nitrogen pores mainly by inhibiting the nucleation of nitrogen bubbles and promoting nitrogen bubble overflow in 30Cr15Mo1N ingots.     

Research on Nitrogen Solubility of Fe–Cr–Mn–V–N System Alloys in Liquid and Solid Phases

In this paper, the thermodynamic model of nitrogen solubility in vanadium nitrogen microalloyed high strength weathering steels of Fe–Cr–Mn–V–N system, according to Hillert’s model for Gibbs energy of its various phases, was established and validated. In the model, the effect of the nitrogen partial pressure on the activity coefficient and the lattice structure characteristics of the vanadium nitrogen precipitated phase were considered. It would be of guiding significance for the design and smelting of Fe–Cr–Mn–V–N system alloys. Based on the established model, the nitrogen contents in \(\delta\), \(\gamma\), \(\alpha\) phase and liquid were calculated as a function of the temperature for Fe–Cr–Mn–V–N system alloys. The results show that: first, the maximum solubility of nitrogen in the solidification process is obviously affected by the phase transition when there is a sudden change in the solubility of nitrogen at the phase transition point. The maximum nitrogen solubility of the molten steel in the delta phase region determines whether nitrogen bubbles are formed during the solidification process. The nitrogen solubility is lowest in the solid–liquid region (about 1673 K). Secondly, the increase of Cr and Mn content is beneficial to improve nitrogen solubility in liquid and solid phases. However, the increase of V content mainly affects the nitrogen solubility in the solid phase because the nitrogen in this temperature range is precipitated in the form of vanadium nitride, as the second phase plays a role in strengthening. In addition, the alloying element Mn has a significant effect on nitrogen solubility since the Mn element is the promoting element of austenitic formation. During the solidification process, the delta ferrite region gradually reduces and may disappear with increasing Mn content. Therefore, increasing the Mn content of the alloy system in the design of alloy composition, can reduce the precipitation trend of the nitrogen during the solidification process, which can effectively avoid bubble formation in high nitrogen weathering steels. Lastly, with the increase in the nitrogen partial pressure, the solubility of nitrogen increases during the liquid and solid phases.     

Nitrogen transfer into plasma heated steel melts as a function of arc polarity

Heating liquid steel in the tundish with argon stabilized plasma arcs is one example of the increasing importance of mobile and inert heating systems in metallurgy. Unwanted nitrogen pick-up caused by infiltrated air, and possibly aggravated by the activating effect of plasma, should be minimized by selecting the optimum current mode and torch polarity. With this aim in mind, the nitrogen transfer kinetics have been investigated on 150-kg low carbon steel melts at different nitrogen partial pressures as a function of arc polarity. The experimental plasma plant was equipped with a 2000-A torch, housing a thoria stabilized tungsten electrode, and a counter electrode located at the bottom of the crucible. The torch could be operated with DC of either polarity or with AC. Kinetic models of nitrogen transfer have been developed, which show good agreement with experimental results. Arc polarity has a significant effect both on the rate of nitrogen pick-up in the arc area (pumping effect) and on the mass transport in the melt (stirring effect). Of all configurations tested, the torch as cathode is the most suitable arc configuration for inert heating, since the particularly active N⁺ ions in the plasma are repelled by the melt surface. Furthermore, the relatively strong stirring effect of the plasma jet leads to the highest heat transfer efficiency. On the other hand, where controlled nitrogen pick-up is required, the highest nitrogen transfer rates are obtained with the torch poled as anode.     

Peculiarities of helium porosity formation in the surface layer of the structural materials used for the first wall of fusion reactor

Transmission electron microscopy is used to study the formation of helium porosity in the nearsurface layer of ferritic–martensitic steels and vanadium irradiated by 40-keV He⁺ ions at a temperature of 923 K up to fluence of 5 × 10²⁰ He⁺/m² and, then, by 7.5-MeV Ni²⁺ ions at 923 K up to dose of 100 dpa. Large gas bubbles are found to form in the zone with the maximum concentration of radiation vacancies during He⁺ ion irradiation. Moreover, small bubbles form in some grains at the depths that are larger than the He+ ion range in the irradiated material. Sequential irradiation by He⁺ and Ni²⁺ ions leads to the nucleation of helium bubbles at still larger depths due to helium atom transport via recoil and/or ion mixing. The precipitation hardening of the steels by Y₂O₃ oxide nanoparticles is found to suppress helium swelling substantially.     

The effect of irradiation with nitrogen ions on the properties of pyrolytic graphite

The effect of irradiation with nitrogen ions (E = 30 keV, J = 10¹⁶?10¹⁸ cm^?2) on the elemental composition, surface topography, and structure of the near-surface layer of pyrolytic graphite are investigated.     

Effect of plasma immersion ion beam processing on the structure–phase state and the properties of the surface layers in titanium nickelide samples

The formation of a microstructure in the surface layers of model samples made of a titanium nickelide–based alloy intended for medical application during plasma immersion processing by silicon ions is studied. Depending on technological conditions, either a silicon coating can be formed or a surface layer can be alloyed. The formed layers have a high microhardness and high adhesion to the base material.     

Structure Formation and Hardening of the Hybrid Material Based on Vanadium and Zirconium Alloys during High-Pressure Torsion

A layered hybrid material is prepared by high-pressure torsion of a three-layer (vanadium alloy–zirconium alloy–vanadium alloy) billet. A mixed nanostructure with a highly uniform distribution of zirconium and vanadium alloy regions forms under the chosen severe plastic deformation conditions in the middle layer of the material. The microhardness of this layer increases by a factor of about 2.5 as compared to the initial state.     

Microstructure modification and surface hardening of 12% chromium steels by pulsed gas plasma flows

The changes in the microstructure and the surface hardening of chromium (12 wt % Cr) ferritic–martensitic steels in various initial states treated by high-temperature pulsed gas plasma flows (flux energy density Q = 17–78 J/cm², pulse duration τ_p = 15–20 μs) have been studied experimentally. Treatment of fuel-element pipes and monolithic specimens of 12% chromium steel under melting of near-surface layers is found to form a gradient structure–phase state with a submicrocrystalline (~130 nm) surface layer up to 10 μm thick. The parameters of the formed cellular submicrostructure and the modified layer thickness are found to weakly depend on the composition and the thermomechanical treatment of the steels. It is shown that treatment of fuel-element pipes made of 12% chromium steels by plasma flows leads to their surface hardening by 40–60% and by a factor of 1.7–1.9 upon surface liquid-phase alloying with aluminum and chromium irrespective of steel composition.     

Effect of silicon on the rate of de-sulphurization of liquid Fe-S alloys by argon-hydrogen at 1550°C

Abstract

The passivation of copper anodes due to precipitation of copper sulfate on the anode surface was investigated as a function of electrolyte composition and temperature, and of anode composition. The slime layer present on the anode surface was shown to be the primary factor in causing passivation by inhibiting the diffusion of copper ions. Factors such as temperature, free acid level, Ni²⁺ and Cu²⁺ ion levels were also important in so far as they affected the mass transfer characteristics of Cu²⁺ ions and the solubility of copper sulfate.

Résumé

La passivation des anodes de cuivre due à la précipitation du sulfate de cuivre sur la surface de l'anode a été étudiée en fonction de la composition et la température de l'électrolyte et aussi en fonction de la composition de l'anode. Nous avons montré que la couche d'impuretés présente sur la surface de l'anode est la cause première de la passivation car elle empêche la diffusion des ions cuivre. D'autres facteurs tels que la température, le niveau d'acide libre, le niveau d'ions Ni²⁺ et Cu² sont également importants en ce qu'ils affectent les caractéristiques de transport de matière des ions Cu²⁺ et la solubilitédu sulfate de cuivre.     

Structure and properties of H-beams after accelerated water cooling

The structure and properties of the surface of DP155 H-beams made of 09G2S low-carbon steel are determined on the basis of materials physics, before and after thermomechanical strengthening—that is, accelerated water cooling. Such H-beams are used in monorail tracks. Highly defective structure in the surface layer is created by accelerated cooling of the beam in the line of the 450 bar mill at AO EVRAZ Zapadno-Sibirskii Metallurgicheskii Kombinat, in the following conditions: rolling speed 6 m/s; water pressure in the crosspiece-cooling section 0.22–0.28 MPa; temperature before cooling about 800°C. As a result, the hardness, wear resistance, and scalar dislocation density are higher than in the steel without strengthening. Without thermal strengthening, the microhardness of the samples is 2.70 ± 0.33 GPa, while the Young’s modulus is 269.2 ± 27.1 GPa. Thermomechanical strengthening increases its microhardness to 3.30 ± 0.29 GPa, and decreases the Young’s modulus to 228.2 ± 25.7 GPa. In addition, the microhardness range is increased from 2.20–3.80 GPa to 2.64–4.60 GPa, while the Young’s modulus range is reduced from 208.0–403.0 GPa to 184.1–278.2 GPa on thermomechanical strengthening. It is found that thermomechanical strengthening increases the wear resistance of the steel’s surface layer by a factor of ~1.36 (decrease in wear rate from 5.3 × 10^–5 to 2.9 × 10^–5 mm³/N m) and increases the frictional coefficient by a factor of 1.36 (from 0.36 to 0.49). Without thermal strengthening, the structure observed is dislocational chaos; the scalar density of the dislocations is (0.9–1.0) × 10¹⁰ cm^–2. High-temperature rolling and subsequent accelerated cooling of the samples produces dislocational substructure of band type in the ferrite grains and of reticular type in the martensite grains: the mean scalar density of the dislocations in the surface layer is 4.5 × 10¹⁰ cm^–2. Possible explanations for such behavior are discussed.     

氮离子束轰击W18Cr4V高速钢的表面效应

采用俄罗斯UVN 0.5D2I离子束辅助电弧离子镀沉积设备,对高速钢W18Cr4V基材表面进行氮离子束轰击,研究了氮离子束轰击能量对表面形貌、相结构及显微硬度的影响.研究表明:氮离子束轰击后基材表面原有划痕消失,表面趋于光滑.表面层出现(Fe,Cr),CrN,Cr2N和FeN相;随着氮离子束轰击能量的增加,(Fe,Cr)相结构未发生变化,CrN(111)衍射峰逐渐增强,Cr2N(211)衍射峰逐渐减弱;FeN(210)衍射峰先增强而后消失,出现Fe2N相.氮离子束轰击后的表面显微硬度由原来的900HV0.01升高到1 230 HV0.01.     

Nanohardness of wear-resistant surfaces after electron-beam treatment

The nanohardness, Young’s modulus, and defect substructure of the metal layer applied to Hardox 450 low-carbon martensitic steel by high-carbon powder wire (diameter 1.6 mm) of different chemical composition (containing elements such as vanadium, chromium, niobium, tungsten, manganese, silicon, nickel, and boron) and then twice irradiated by a pulsed electron beam are studied, so as to determine the correct choice of wear-resistant coatings for specific operating conditions and subsequent electron-beam treatment. The metal layer is applied to the steel surface in protective gas containing 98% Ar and 2% CO₂, with a welding current of 250–300 A and an arc voltage of 30–35 V. The applied metal is modified by the application of an intense electron beam, which induces melting and rapid solidification. The load on the indenter is 50 mN. The nanohardness and Young’s modulus are determined at 30 arbitrarily selected points of the modified surface. The defect structure of the applied metal surface after electron-beam treatment is studied by means of a scanning electron microscope. The nanohardness and Young’s modulus of the applied metal after electron-beam treatment markedly exceed those of the base. The increase is greatest when using powder wire that contains 4.5% B. A system of microcracks is formed at the surface of the layer applied by means of powder wire that contains 4.5% B and then subjected to an intense pulsed electron beam. No microcracks are observed at the surface of layers applied by means of boron-free powder wire after intense pulsed electron-beam treatment. The boron present increases the brittleness. The increase in strength of the applied layer after electron-beam treatment is due to the formation of a structure in which the crystallites (in the size range from tenths of a micron to a few microns) contain inclusions of secondary phases (borides, carbides, carboborides). The considerable spread observed in the nanohardness and Young’s modulus is evidently due to the nonuniform distribution of strengthening phases.     

Influence of nitrogen on hot ductility of steels and its relationship to problem of transverse cracking

Abstract

The present review examines the influence of nitrogen on the hot ductility of steels, with particular relevance to the problem of transverse cracking during continuous casting. Nitrogen itself is not detrimental to hot ductility, but when it is present with aluminium or microalloying additions, ductility can be adversely affected through the formation of nitrides or carbonitrides. The addition of aluminium to low nitrogen C–Mn steels (0·005%N)impairs ductility during casting at an acid soluble level as low as 0·02%Al. This arises because segregation of aluminium to the grain boundaries occurs on solidification, and the temperature cycling that takes place when the strand is cooled encourages AlN precipitation. However, for low nitrogen, high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels with carbon levels in the peritectic range 0·08–0·17%C, transverse cracking is not generally encountered until the aluminium level is >0·04%. Higher nitrogen levels are likely to cause problems even at very low aluminium levels, as precipitation of AlN is controlled by the product of the aluminium and nitrogen contents. The microalloying additions vanadium and niobium are detrimental to ductility but, of the two elements, niobium is more damaging, as it gives finer precipitation. Increasing the nitrogen level has a more pronounced influence on ductility in vanadium containing steels, since vanadium forms a nitride while niobium forms Nb (CN), which is mainly carbon based. Nevertheless, the product of vanadium and nitrogen contents has to approach 1·2 × 10^-3, for example 0·1%V and 0·012%N, before ductility deteriorates to that normally given by a niobium containing steel with 0·03%Nb and 0·005%N. When small titanium additions are made to low nitrogen C–Mn–Al steels (0·005%N), the best ductility is likely to be given by a high Ti/N ratio of 4–5 : 1; the excess titanium in solution encourages growth of the TiN particles. For high nitrogen steels (0·01%N), a low titanium level (0·01%)is recommended to limit the volume fraction of TiN particles. A low soluble aluminium level is also needed to prevent the excess nitrogen from combining to form AlN. For C–Mn–Nb–Al steels, similar recommendations can be made with regard to adding titanium. However, the presence of niobium and aluminium appears to have little influence on ductility, since these elements coarsen the titanium containing precipitates.     

Surface of high-chromium steel modified by an intense pulsed electron beam

The formation of nanostructural multiphase surface layers in high-chromium 12Х18Н10Т and 20Х13 stainless steel under the action of an intense pulsed electron beam in a SOLO system is studied. The Fe–Cr–C system is thermodynamically analyzed. Alloying Fe–Cr alloys with carbon considerably changes their structural and phase state and determines the regions of existence of the carbides M₂₃C₆, M₇C₃, M₃C₂, and M₃C with α and γ phases. The temperature field formed in the surface layer of the steel under the action of the electron beam is numerically calculated. When the energy density of the electron beam is 10 J/cm2, regardless of the pulse length of the electron beam (50–200 μs), the maximum temperature at the sample surface corresponding to the end of the pulse is less than the melting point of the steel. The structure and the mechanical and tribological properties of the surface layer of high-chromium 12Х18Н10Т and 20Х13 steel formed under the action of the intense pulsed electron beam are investigated. It is found that electron-beam treatment of the steel with melting and subsequent high-speed crystallization is accompanied by solution of the initial carbide particles of composition M₂₃C₆—specifically, (Cr, Fe)₂₃C₆—and hence saturation of the crystal lattice in the surface layer with carbon and chromium atoms. In addition, submicronic cells of dendritic crystallization are formed, and nanoparticles of titanium carbide and chromium carbide are deposited. Overall, electron-beam treatment improves the surface and tribological properties of the materials. For 12Х18Н10Т steel, the hardness of the surface layer is increased by a factor of 1.5 and the wear resistance by a factor of 1.5, while the frictional coefficient is decreased by a factor of 1.6. For 20Х13 steel, the microhardness is increased by a factor of 1.5 and the wear resistance by a factor of 3.2, while the frictional coefficient is decreased by a factor of 2.3.     

Modification of the T15K6 hard alloy with high-power pulsed ion beams and compression plasma fluxes

The change in the morphology, phase composition, hardness of surface layers, microstructure, and elemental composition of the inner layers of an alloy under the effect of high-power pulsed ion beams (HIBs) and compression plasma streams (CPSs) is investigated. It is found that the thickness of the molten surface layer increases to 3–4 μm after the HIB effect: 300 pulses 9 × 10^?2 μm long with a summary energy density of 430 J/cm². The features of the CPF treatment are a larger time of pulse effect (100 μs) and the preferential convection agitation of the molten layer. As a result, a thicker layer of the (W, Ti)C solid solution with uniform elemental distribution over the depth and high hardness (30 GPa) is formed.     

Nitrogen solubility in liquid Fe-V and Fe-Cr-Ni-V alloys

Nitrogen solubility in liquid Fe, Fe-V, Fe-Cr-V, Fe-Ni-V and Fe-18 pct Cr-8 pet Ni-V alloys has been measured using the Sieverts’ method for vanadium contents up to 15 wt pct and over the temperature range from 1775 to 2040 K. Nitrogen solution obeyed Sieverts’ law for all alloys investigated. Nitride formation was observed in Fe-13 pet V, Fe-15 pet V and Fe-18 pet Cr-8 pet Ni-10 pet V alloys at lower temperatures. The nitrogen solubility increases with increasing vanadium content and for a given composition decreases with increasing temperature. In Fe-V alloys, the nitrogen solubility at 1 atm N₂ pressure is 0.72 wt pet at 1863 K and 15 pct V. The heat and entropy of solution of nitrogen in Fe-V alloys were determined as functions of vanadium content. The first and second order interaction parameters were determined as functions of temperature as: $$e_N^V = \frac{{ - 463.6}}{T} + 0.148 and e_N^{VV} = \frac{{17.72}}{T} - 0.0069$$ The effects of alloying elements on the activity coefficient of nitrogen were measured in Fe-5 pet and 10 pet Cr-V, Fe-5 pet and 10 pet Ni-V and Fe-18 pet Cr-8 pct Ni-V alloys. In Fe-18 pet Cr-8 pet Ni-10 pet V, the nitrogen solubility at 1 atm N₂ pressure is 0.97 wt pet at 1873 K. The second order cross interaction parameters, e _N ^Cr,V and e _N ^Ni,V , were determined at 1873 K as 0.00129 and ? 0.00038 respectively.