THE EFFECT OF EDIBLE FILM ON OIL UPTAKE AND MOISTURE RETENTION OF A DEEP-FAT FRIED POULTRY PRODUCT

The recent trend in reducing the fat content in fried foods is leading to the development of low-fat products using batter and breading formulations from protein and other hydrocolloids. The functionality of many of these edible ingredients on moisture retention and fat barrier properties during deep-fat frying is not clearly understood. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose edible film coating on chicken balls for moisture retention and fat reduction during deep-fat frying. Two sizes (35 and 47 mm) of uncoated and coated chicken balls were fried in peanut oil at 175C for five different frying periods ranging from 30 to 180s for small and 30 to 300s for large balls. The moisture and fat content from the surface layer and core were determined. In comparison to the control, moisture retention up to 16.4% and fat reduction up to 33.7% were observed.     

Reduction of Oil Absorption in Deep‐Fried,Battered, and Breaded Chicken Patties Using Whey Protein Isolate as a Postbreading Dip: Effect on Lipid and Moisture Content

ABSTRACT: The effectiveness of whey protein isolate (WPI) solution as a postbreading dip to reduce oil absorption in deep‐fried, battered, and breaded chicken patties was investigated. Chicken patties were battered, breaded with either crackermeal or Japanese breadcrumbs, and dipped in WPI solutions prepared at 4 different protein concentrations (0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10%, w/w WPI) that were adjusted to pHs 2, 3, and 8 before being deep fried. Undipped chicken patties served as the control. Overall, the most effective treatment was observed for WPI solutions made at high concentrations (5% and 10% WPI) at low pH levels (pHs 2 and 3). The highest lipid reduction observed for crackermeal patties (CMP) was 31.2% for patties treated with 5% protein solutions at pH 2 while the highest lipid reduction for Japanese breadcrumb patties (JBP) was 37.5% for patties treated with 10% protein solutions at pH 2. Oil degradation and batter, breading, and whey pickup did not significantly affect final lipid and moisture content. Moisture content was generally lower in patties treated at low pH levels (pHs 2 and 3). The results indicate that the usage of WPI as a postbreading dip is a promising alternative in reducing fat content in fried foods since it could simultaneously fulfill the steady demand for fried foods and contribute to the growing effort of Americans to consume less fat.     

Influence of Batter Viscosity on Breading of Chicken Drumsticks

The effects of batter viscosity on breading pickup and cooking losses are reported here. A dry batter mix was blended with water to prepare batters of increasing viscosity. Chicken drumsticks were towel dried, weighed, dipped in batter, dredged in breading, reweighed, then deep fat fried. As batter viscosity increased, the amount of breading picked up increased. Cooking losses were least and breading adhesion best from those drumsticks dipped in batters having a 1:2 water:solids ratio. Poorest adhesion of breading was noted for drumsticks dipped in batters of low viscosity having a 2:1 water:solids ratio.     

Quality Evaluation of Edible Film-Coated Chicken Strips and Frying Oils

ABSTRACT: Methyl cellulose (MC) and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) edible film materials were applied to marinated whole chicken strips either prior to breading, after breading, or were incorporated in the breading. Subsequently, the influence of an edible film's location relative to the crust on fried food product quality and the quality of the frying oil were determined. Films applied to chicken strips prior to the breading had fried crusts with higher fat and lower moisture levels. Decreased degradation of frying oils was recorded when product coated with HPMC (food grade E4M) films had been fried compared to non-coated product. It is postulated that these edible films hindered the migration of moisture and acetic acid into the frying oil and this activity was responsible for reduced free fatty acid generation in those oils used to fry the coated products.     

EFFECT OF BREADING PARTICLE SIZE ON COATING ADHESION IN BREADED, FRIED CHICKEN BREASTS

The effect of particle size on coating adhesion was measured for battered chicken breasts. Bread crumbs were separated into small (≤ 250 μm), medium (250 μm-850 μm), and large (> 850 μm) particles. Chicken breasts were battered, breaded, and deep-fat fried for 240 s at 160C. Fried products were analyzed for coating adhesion, moisture content, and yield parameters. Coating adhesion was highest in coatings formed from small particle size breading, and lowest in those made from large particle size breading. Chicken breasts coated using small particle size breading had higher moisture in the surface region of the meat as well as in the coating. SEM of the coatings showed greater merging between the breading and the batter with decreasing breading particle size. No significant differences were observed in coating pickup, cooking loss, or yield between samples coated with different particle size breading.     

Edible Coating Effects on Fried Potato Balls

The effects of various treatments and frying times on some physical, chemical, and sensorial properties of potato balls coated with chickpea and wheat flour were studied. Potato balls were pre-dusted with chickpea flour (CF) or wheat flour (WF) as an initial coating which was followed by dipping into 0.1% xanthum gum solution as the second coating. The last coating was breading with 1:3 CF/WF, 1:1 CF/WF, and 3:1 CF/WF mixtures. Coated potato balls were fried at 185 °C for 5, 7, and 9 min. The pre-dusting materials, particularly the effect of CF, enhanced yield values and sensorial properties as well as increased adhesion degree as it decreased frying loss. Although, the breading materials raised the yield values compared to the control, the yield and moisture content values decreased with increasing frying time. Frying loss, fat absorption, penetrometer values, and texture values also increased. Results revealed that CF is suitable as a pre-dusting material, and 7 min was the more efficient frying time for coated potato balls.     

Use of Glandless Cottonseed and Sunflower Seed Products in Batter/Breading for Fried Beef Patties

This study indicates that defatted glandless cottonseed flour (GCF) 01 sunflower seed protein isolate (SI) incorporated in the batter/breading system can impart their antioxidant effect to the meat of fried beef patties. Coarsely ground lean beef patties were coated consecutively with dry ingredient (wheat flour for control and 1:1 mixture of wheat flour-GCF or wheat flour-SI for experimental samples), batter made of 1 part of dry ingredient and 2 parts of water, and finally dry ingredient. Ground beef and dry ingredients each contained 1% salt. Use of GCF or SI in the coating mixes greatly reduced the thiobarbituric acid values of the meat when the coated patties were fried and stored at 4°C for 5 days.     

Effects of cross-linked tapioca starches on batter viscosity and oil absorption in deep-fried breaded chicken strips

In this study, the effectiveness and feasibility of using various degrees of cross-linked tapioca starches in batter and breading formulations to reduce oil absorptions in deep fried chickens were investigated. Shear flow behaviour, water retention capacity (WRC), pick-up as well as cooked yield of the prepared batters were also examined. Flow curves showed that all studied batters were pseudoplastic, i.e. having shear thinning characteristics. In addition, it was found that the substitution of 20% (w/w) cross-linked starches for wheat flour in the batter formulation significantly reduced the consistency index and WRC of the batters. However, batter pick-up and cooked yield values were insignificantly affected. Oil uptake of fried chicken crusts was determined using differential scanning calorimetry due to its specific advantages over the conventional solvent extraction method. In comparison to the control (wheat) formulation, crusts of fried chicken samples obtained from the formulations containing 20% (w/w) cross-linked starch showed significantly lower oil content by at least 17% relative oil reduction. The highest relative oil reduction was found in the batter containing the highly cross-linked tapioca starch. Furthermore, an increase in water content in the batter formulations resulted in a reduction in the batter pick-up, cooked yield and oil absorption. The degree of cross-linking which in turn resulted in the limited starch granule disintegration is the predominant factor in the reduction of oil content for deep-fried battered food.     

Consumer Acceptability and Color of Deep-Fried Fish Coated with Wheat or Corn Distillers'Dried Grains with Solubles (DDGS)

Distillers’dried grains with solubles (DDGS) from hard red wheat, soft white wheat and corn were used at a substitution level of 25% by weight for all-purpose flour in a conventional batter mix for fried fish. Fried fish nuggets (Alaskan pollock) prepared with a 25% DDGS batter either with or without a Japanese-style Panko breading were evaluated by a consumer panel (N = 2,546) for acceptability. All experimental products were rated as acceptable. There were no significant differences among the ratings of the products coated with batter only. However, products coated with batter and then with Panko breading were rated differently: the corn DDGS coated sample was rated higher than the control, while the white and red wheat DDGS coated samples received the lowest ratings. International color measurements of the dry batter mixes and the fried fish nuggets containing DDGS were darker than the controls.     

添加成分对外裹糊流变性能及外裹糊鱼块油炸过程油脂渗透的影响

将分别添加黄原胶（0.4%）、大豆纤维（2%）、乳清蛋白（4%）的外裹糊制作油炸外裹糊鱼块,通过测定外裹糊的黏性模量（G”）和弹性模量（G’）以及油炸外裹糊鱼块的水分和油脂含量、微观结构、苏丹红染色水平和油脂分布,探讨添加成分对外裹糊流变性能及外裹糊鱼块深度油炸过程油脂渗透的影响。结果显示：4 种外裹糊（包括对照组,即外裹糊中未添加黄原胶、大豆纤维或乳清蛋白）的G”值和G’值随温度升高先减小后增大,最后趋于稳定,黄原胶组外裹糊的G”值和G’值最大。油炸后黄原胶组的外壳结构紧密,鱼块孔隙小且数量少,具有较高的水分含量和较低的油脂含量。苏丹红染色幅度最大的是对照组,油脂已通过外壳渗入鱼块;黄原胶组染色幅度最小,只出现在外壳中。油脂主要分布在外壳孔隙周围,黄原胶组的荧光强度最低,其次是乳清蛋白组和大豆纤维组,对照组的荧光强度最高。研究结果表明外裹糊中分别添加黄原胶、大豆纤维、乳清蛋白明显影响了外裹糊的流变性能,抑制了外裹糊鱼块深度油炸过程的油脂渗透。     

Effect of batter formulation on lipid uptake during frying and lipid fraction of frozen battered squid

The present paper studies the influence that batter ingredients (wheat flour, corn flour, salt and leavening agent) have on fat content and oxidative degradation of the lipid fraction of deep-fried frozen battered squid. The use of a leavening agent significantly increases the fat content during frying; the generation of gas cells where oil easily lodges is the most important event observed by scanning electron microscopy when this additive is used in the formulation. The addition of salt in the formulation also increases fat content, but replacement of wheat flour by corn flour decreases significantly the oil content of the battered squids. The acidity index values indicate a relatively low degree of hydrolysis for all the batters studied. The batter formulation influences the degree of oxidation of the lipid fraction of the deep-fried products; the battered product with leavening in its formulation shows a lesser oxidation (P<0.05), which might be connected with the high absorption of oil during deep fat frying.     

EFFECTS OF CONTROLLED MIXING ON THE RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF DEEP-FAT FRYING BATTERS AT DIFFERENT PERCENT SOLIDS

Two types of deep‐fat frying batters (adhesion and tempura batters) were mixed under controlled conditions at different percent solids to study their rheological properties and coating characteristics. Optimum degree of mixing of a batter was defined as the conditions that gave the maximum amount of batter retention (coating thickness) on a coated probe. Batter with higher percent solids needed more energy to achieve optimum mixing. In the case of batter retention, batters with higher percent solids required a longer period of time to stabilize dripping. Thixotropic behavior was observed in both adhesion and tempura batters. When relating batter rheology with fried food quality, it was found that undermixing a batter had more detrimental effects on fried food quality than overmixing a batter.     

Effect of green tea extract and microwave pre-cooking on the formation of acrylamide in fried chicken drumsticks and chicken wings

Since 2002, it has been well-known that carbohydrate-rich foods have a high level of acrylamide (AA). Some researchers have drawn attention on the formation of AA in coated and fried chicken meat products in recent years. From this viewpoint, the purpose of the present study was to mitigate acrylamide formation in fried chicken drumsticks (CDs) and chicken wings (CWs) using green tea extract (GTE) alone or combined with microwave pre-cooking (MPC) by decrease frying time. In brief, CDs and CWs marinated for one day were divided into eight groups. Four of those were first covered with batter and breading, including 0%, 0.5%, 1.5% and 3% GTE and deep fried in fat for 8.5 min for CDs and 3.5 min for CWs at 175 °C and 8 psi of pressure. In the second step, the remainder of the marinated CDs and CWs were subjected to MPC for 7 min and 5 min, respectively. Then, they were covered with batter and breading including 0%, 0.5%, 1.5% and 3% GTE and deep fried in fat for 5.5 min for CDs and 2.5 min for CWs at 175 °C and 8 psi for pressure. With increasing levels of GTE, the AA concentration decreased gradually in CDs and CWs. In addition, MPC also decreased AA formation in CWs due to the shorter frying time. Moreover, MPC was more efficient at reducing AA formation in CWs when it was combined with GTE. A lighter and more yellowish color was measured in CDs as a consequence of the shorter frying time. It is crucial to state that the incorporation of GTE into the breading or MPC did not negatively affect the sensory properties of CDs and CWs, while it reduced AA formation. In conclusion, it can be stated that GTE alone or combined with MPC is an effective and practical mitigation strategy for AA formation.     

Development and application of soy‐protein films to reduce fat intake in deep‐fried foods

A soy protein film coating was developed and evaluated to reduce fat transfer in deep‐fried foods during frying. Soy protein isolate solutions (10% SPI) with 0.05% gellan gum as plasticizer cooled after being held at 80 °C for 20 min provided suitable films. There was a significant fat reduction (55.12 (±6.03)%db) between fried uncoated and coated discs of doughnut mix. The same films were used on potato fries. Some panellists observed a slight difference between the coated and uncoated fries but many preferred the coated fries over the uncoated ones. Penetration test on potato fries showed no significant difference between the texture of coated (SPI with gellan gum) and the uncoated fried samples. A solution of 10% SPI with 0.05% gellan gum is recommended for coating foods to reduce fat intake during deep‐fat frying. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effect of Bicarbonate Salts and Sequential Using of Frying Oil on Acrylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural Contents in Coated Fried Chicken Meat

In this research, the effect of different bicarbonate salts (sodium and ammonium) and their doses (0, 1, 2, and 3 g/100 g raw material) in the coating batter formula use and the sequential use of frying oil (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th) on 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and acrylamide contents in coated fried chicken meat. The addition of sodium bicarbonate was efficient for reducing acrylamide content, but it increased browning and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural content compared to the control. When increasing the doses of sodium and ammonium bicarbonate from 1 to 3 g/100 g of raw material, the acrylamide content of samples did not change significantly, although adding sodium bicarbonate significantly reduced the acrylamide content as a control. These research results showed that using about 1 g/100 g raw material sodium bicarbonate rather than ammonium bicarbonate and as little frying oil as possible use during the production of coated and fried meat results in lower contents of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and acrylamide.     

Thermal properties of batter systems formulated by combinations of different flours

There is an increasing consumer preference for reduced oil content in fried food products. The amount of fat absorbed by deep fried foods can be modified using appropriate coatings such as batter and breading systems. Coatings also change the heat transfer characteristics of the composite products. The goal of this study was to determine some thermal properties of selected batter mixes that are commonly used for deep fat frying of chicken products. Three types of flour-based batter mixes were used. These were mixtures of wheat and rice (WR), wheat and corn (WC), and corn and rice (CR) flours with salt and different methylcellulose (MC) levels. The differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) was used to measure glass transition temperature (T_g), gelatinization temperature (T_G), ice-melting temperature (T_m) and enthalpy (ΔH_G) of the different batter formulations. Salt and MC greatly influenced the thermal properties of batter systems as they increased T_G, but depressed T_m. Adding rice and corn flours to wheat flour based batters apparently changed the thermal properties. Corn flour based batters required considerable more energy for gelatinization during the cooking process.     

Acrylamide formation in different batter formulations during microwave frying

Acrylamide, a probable human carcinogen, is found to be formed in a wide range of fried foods. In this study, the effects of microwave frying on acrylamide formation in the coating part of chicken were investigated. It was also aimed to determine the effects of various flour types (soy, chickpea and rice flour) in batter formulations on the acrylamide formation and on the color of fried chicken. Usage of all flour types except soy flour resulted in approximately the same moisture content and color development after 1.5 min of microwave frying. Acrylamide contents of batter parts of 1.5 min microwave fried samples having different flours were similar. Microwave frying provided lower acrylamide content and lighter color as compared to those fried conventionally for 5 min for all types of flours. This reduction in acrylamide level was the highest (34.5%) for rice flour containing batter.     

The Effect of Edible Coatings and Pressure Frying Using Nitrogen Gas on the Quality of Breaded Fried Chicken Nuggets

ABSTRACT: The effects of 2 edible coatings, methylcellulose (MC) and whey protein isolate (WPI), and 2 pressure sources (nitrogen gas and steam) on the quality attributes (crispness, moisture and fat content, juiciness, color, and texture) of breaded fried chicken nuggets were evaluated. MC or WPI was incorporated into either the pre-dust or the batter before frying. Chicken nuggets were fried in a modified restaurant-type pressure fryer under a constant pressure of 163 kPa at 175°C for 240 s. Samples were held under a heat lamp at 60°C for 0-, 10-, 20-, and 30-min time intervals. Crispness was evaluated using a nondestructive ultrasonic technique. Coating type and pressure source had a significant effect ( P < 0.05) on all quality attributes. Chicken nuggets fried using nitrogen gas were crispier ( P < 0.05) than those fried with steam. The treatment combination of MC incorporated into the pre-dust and frying with nitrogen gas was the most effective at maintaining product crispness.     

Effects of batters containing different gum types on the quality of deep‐fat fried chicken nuggets

The effects of various gum types [hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), guar gum, xanthan gum, gum arabic] on the quality of deep‐fat fried chicken nuggets were studied. Chicken samples, 0.04 m in diameter and 0.015 m in thickness taken from the breast portion, were coated with batters composed of a 3:5 solid to water ratio by immersion. The solid content of batter formulations contained equal amounts of corn and wheat flours, 1.0% gum, 1.0% salt and 0.5% leavening agent. As control, batter without gum addition was used. Samples were fried at 180 °C for 3, 6, 9 and 12 min. The hardness and oil content of the chicken nuggets increased whereas the moisture content decreased during frying. HPMC and xanthan gums reduced oil absorption significantly compared with other gums and the control. When gum arabic was added to the batter formulation, a product with the highest oil content and porosity was obtained. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Frying — Effect of coating on crust microstructure,color, and texture of lean meat portions

Skinless, deboned chicken breast fillets were deep fat fried (190 °C) with and without a batter and breading coating system for up to 6 min (internal temp 70 °C). Non-coated samples show surface muscle fiber splitting as soon as placed in oil. As time progressed, the depth of damage increased. Shear force and work to shear increased significantly as a dense hard crust layer was forming. By the end, fillets lost about 1/3 of their weight and had a dark, dry, brittle crust. Frying with coating protected the meat inside and no major damages to muscle fibers were observed. Shear force also increased but the values were about half of what was observed in non-coated products, meaning that the meat inside was protected. Coated products became progressively golden brown (increased a* and b*, decreased L*) while the crust adhered well to the product. After frying, the products showed a small gain in weight which was the result of no structural shrinkage and absorption of a small amount of oil.