Mirrored selves: The influence of self-presence in a virtual world on health,appearance, and well-being

Though considerable research has investigated spatial and social presence, little research has examined the influence of self-presence in a mediated environment. The present work is an empirical study of the role of self-presence in a social virtual world on individuals’ offline health, appearance, and well-being. Second Life users (N = 279) completed an online questionnaire about their experiences of presence in the virtual world, the influence of their avatar on their offline appearance and health behaviors, and their level of satisfaction with the relationships they developed online. It was hypothesized that self-presence would be positively associated with avatar influence on health and appearance and that self-presence would render the influence of spatial and social presence statistically non-significant. Additionally, it was hypothesized that self-presence would be positively associated with satisfaction with relationships developed in the virtual world. Support was found for these predictions. Results suggest that self-presence is uniquely linked to the influence of the virtual self on offline health and appearance and is a significant predictor of the development of satisfying online relationships. Individual differences and potential prosocial effects of virtual worlds are also discussed.     

The influence of self-discrepancy between the virtual and real selves in virtual communities

Virtual communities enable one to pretend to be a different person or to possess a different self-identity at little or no cost. Despite the ubiquity of such communities, there is limited theoretical and empirical research regarding the effect of taking on a different self-identity associated with one’s psychological and behavioral functioning in those communities. To address this issue, drawing on the self-concept rooted in sociopsychology, this study employs the self-discrepancy index, which assesses the degree of differences between one’s virtual and real selves; the study goes onto develop a theoretical framework that links self-discrepancy, psychological states (i.e., autonomy, recovery, and catharsis), and behavior (i.e., contribution quality and quantity). The results of an analysis involving 299 survey participants show that self-discrepancy has a significant influence on autonomy and recovery and that this, in turn, influences levels of contribution quality and quantity. It is of note that the results of this study indicate that catharsis is inversely related to contribution quality. Furthermore, subgroup analysis reveals that the effects of self-discrepancy on contribution vary depending on whether the virtual community is utilitarian or hedonic.     

Influences of Web interactivity and social identity and bonds on the quality of online discussion in a virtual community

People participate in virtual communities (VCs) for knowledge sharing or social interaction. However, most studies of VCs have focused on elucidating knowledge sharing rather than predicting virtual social interactions. This study considers “quality of online discussion” an appropriate metric for assessing group-level outcomes of virtual social interactions, and thus for predicting member willingness to sustain an ongoing relationship with a virtual community (VC). This study develops a research model, grounded in Web interactivity, social identity and social bond theories, for predicting the quality of online discussion in terms of cognitive and social influences. Empirical results from an online survey of a VC verify distinct direct and indirect social influences (perceived internalization bonds and perceived identification bonds) and cognitive influences (perceived communication and perceived control). Implications for academics and practitioners are also discussed.     

The mechanism through which members with reconstructed identities become satisfied with a social network community: A contingency model

This study investigates members’ satisfaction with interest-based social network communities from an identity-reconstruction perspective. Drawing upon the self-discrepancy theory and the regulatory focus theory, we theoretically modeled the factors (relating to identity reconstruction) that influence members’ satisfaction with social network communities and further investigated whether these influences on satisfaction are contingent upon how much the virtual identity is reconstructed. Data (n = 1063) were collected from six interest-based social network communities. Results support most main effects and further support two moderating effects. The effect of bridging social capital on satisfaction and the effect of privacy concern on satisfaction are contingent upon identity reconstruction.     

The effect of uniform virtual appearance on conformity intention: Social identity model of deindividuation effects and optimal distinctiveness theory

This study integrates social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) and optimal distinctiveness theory (ODT) in investigating the effect of uniform virtual appearance on individuals’ willingness to conform to a majority opinion in computer-mediated groups. SIDE posits that sharing the same visual cue can promote group identification process and eventually induce stronger conformity. Meanwhile, ODT indicates that too much visual similarity rather concerns individuals about their deprived uniqueness, so they would be reluctant to conform to a majority opinion as a way to restore their uniqueness. This study concurs with previous research based on SIDE by showing that group identification induced by uniform appearance increases conformity intention. It also showed that perceived deindividuation, another variable that is induced by a high level of visual similarity relative to others, decreases conformity intention. As a result, the current study shows that the effect of virtual uniform appearance on conformity intention is inconsistently mediated by group identification and perceived deindividuation.     

Knowledge contribution in virtual communities: accounting for multiple dimensions of social presence through social identity

Integrating social presence theory and social identity theory, this study brings system design and social influence aspects together to explain their joint effects on knowledge contribution in virtual communities (VCs). Different from most prior information systems (IS) research that adopts a uni-dimensional approach and restricts social presence to be the subjective nature of media, we developed and empirically tested a model explaining the effects of multi-dimensional social presence on social identification processes and knowledge contribution. An online survey was conducted with four different VCs of interest. The results showed the difference in relative contribution of social presence dimensions on social identity as well as knowledge contribution. Both practical and theoretical implications are discussed.     

Teenagers in social virtual worlds: Continuous use and purchasing behavior in Habbo Hotel

Social virtual worlds (SVWs) have become important environments for social interaction. At the same time, the supply and demand of virtual goods and services is rapidly increasing. For SVWs to be economically sustainable, retaining existing users and turning them into consumers are paramount challenges. This requires an understanding of the underlying reasons why users continuously engage in SVWs and purchase virtual items. This study builds upon Technology Acceptance Model, motivational model and theory of network externalities to examine continuous usage and purchase intention and it empirically tests the model with data collected from 2481 Habbo users. The results reveal a strong relationship between continuous usage and purchasing. Further, the results demonstrate the importance of the presence of other users in predicting the purchase behavior in the SVW. Continuous SVW usage in turn is predicted directly by perceived enjoyment and usefulness while the effect of attitude is marginal. Finally, perceived network externalities exert a significant influence of perceived enjoyment and usefulness of the SVW but do not have a direct effect on the continuous usage.     

Virtually homosexual: Technoromanticism,demarginalisation and identity formation among homosexual males

‘Coming out’ is a key stage in the identity formation process for the homosexual male when the individual discloses his homosexual status to himself and others. Although previous research has indicated that homosexual men often use the Internet and computer-mediated communication (CMC) during the identity formation process to discover and develop their sexual and self-identities, studies to date have focused on their use of text-based CMC with scant attention paid to experiences within virtual worlds. This study explored whether homosexual males use virtual worlds in the sexual identity formation process and, specifically, the applicability of technoromanticism within this context. Qualitative retrospective biographical interviews were undertaken with 12 self-selected individuals who had engaged with virtual worlds before or during their sexual identity development. The CASE model (Community, Anonymity, Sexual experimentation, and Escape) was developed to characterise the key themes emerging from the data and illustrate the enactment of technoromanticism by homosexual males within virtual worlds. It is concluded that technoromanticism in virtual worlds can only have a profound impact on individuals if the individual’s personal development online is transferred offline as there is a potential to become toxically immersed and thus stall or halt the identity development process altogether.     

Nonverbal communication interface for collaborative virtual environments

Nonverbal communication is an important aspect of real-life face-to-face interaction and one of the most efficient ways to convey emotions, therefore users should be provided the means to replicate it in the virtual world. Because articulated embodiments are well suited to provide body communication in virtual environments, this paper first reviews some of the advantages and disadvantages of complex embodiments. After a brief introduction to nonverbal communication theories, we present our solution, taking into account the practical limitations of input devices and social science aspects. We introduce our sample of actions and implementation using our VLNET (Virtual Life Network) networked virtual environment and discuss the results of an informal evaluation experiment.     

Testing a model of sense of virtual community

A distinguishing feature of virtual communities is their sense of community, i.e., their participants’ feelings of membership, identity, influence, and attachment with each other. This study tests a model in which members’ perceptions of the group’s norms mediate the relationships between supporting each other and identifying each other with the members’ sense of virtual community. Two studies were conducted providing partial support for the model. The results show that the perception of norms mediate the relationship between SOVC and (a) observing and publicly exchanging support, (b) perceiving that others know one’s identity, and (c) using technical features to learn and create identity. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

The predictors of users’ satisfaction in an anonymous environment: the role of the negative true self

ABSTRACT

The anonymity of cyberspace enables people to express themselves more freely than in the physical world. Thus, when interacting with others online, some people choose to reconstruct a virtual identity that is partly or even totally different from their physical identity. Using the advanced self-discrepancy theory and the framework of psychological well-being, the current study theoretically modelled the expression of three domains of the self (the ought self, the ideal self and the negative true self) that affects the fulfilment of autonomy and self-acceptance, further influencing people’s overall satisfaction in an anonymous online environment. The data (n?=?837) were collected from QQ, an anonymous social networking platform from China. The results suggested that virtual identity reconstruction in the online world was significantly associated with the fulfilment of autonomy and self-acceptance. Additionally, autonomy and self-acceptance played important roles in shaping user satisfaction.     

When your Second Life comes knocking: Effects of personality on changes to real life from virtual world experiences

A survey study (N = 223) of participants in the social virtual world, Second Life, examined the relationship between Big Five personality factors, experiences in the virtual world and reports of changes to real life resulting from the virtual world experiences. Hypotheses about direct and indirect effects of personality on real life changes were tested with structural equation modeling. Results showed that the strength of users’ relationship to the virtual environment, identification with and similarity to their avatars positively predicted reports of changes to real life, and that these three factors mediated effects of Agreeableness, Extraversion, Intellect, Conscientiousness, and Emotional Stability, on real life changes. Conscientiousness also had a direct negative relationship with real life changes. Implications are discussed for the potential of virtual social media features for activating facets of personality traits.     

The role of presence in the level of anxiety experienced in clinical virtual environments

Recent reviews point towards that Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) can be an effective medium to provide exposure therapy for anxiety disorders. The concept of presence, usually defined as the sense of being inside the virtual environment, has been considered the principal mechanism that leads to the experience of anxiety in clinical virtual environments. The present study sought to examine the relationship between sense of presence and in-session anxiety in a sample of 210 students showing high and low test anxiety when exposed to both clinical and non-stressful virtual environments. This is the largest study conducted to date with the aim of examining the relationship between presence and anxiety in clinical virtual environments, and the first to explore separately the relationship between presence and state-anxiety in phobic and non-phobic participants. The results suggest that presence was not related to anxiety in a non-stressful environment. It was also found that although presence is related to anxiety in both groups of students when exposed to clinical virtual environments, this relationship was clearly stronger for high test anxiety students. This line of research will broaden our understanding of the mechanisms that lead to the efficacy of VRET.     

Avatar creation in virtual worlds: Behaviors and motivations

Avatar creation has become common for people to participate and interact in virtual worlds. Using an online survey (N = 244), we investigated both the behavioral characteristics and major motivations for avatar creation in virtual worlds. Our results suggest that a majority of the participants had multiple avatars; these avatars’ appearance did not merely resemble the human players; and their personality did not necessarily mirror the player’s real personality. Furthermore, participants on average spent over 20 h per week and often interacting with others in the virtual worlds. Our exploratory factor analysis yielded four major motivations: virtual exploration, social navigation, contextual adaptation, and identity representation.     

The nature of virtual communities

The impressive development of electronic communication techniques has given rise to virtual communities. The nature of these computer-mediated communities has been the subject of much recent debate. Are they ordinary social groups in electronic form, or are they fundamentally different from traditional communities? Understanding virtual communities seems a prerequisite for the design of better communication systems. To clarify this debate, we will resort to the classical sociological distinction between small traditional communities (based on personal relations) and modern social groups (bound by looser, more impersonal links). We will argue that the discussion about virtual communities is often vitiated by a simplistic assimilation to traditional communities, whereas they may be in fact quite different and much more impersonal. Virtual communities are often bound by reference to common objects or goals, and not by personal relations. In this respect, virtual communities are just another example of a long-term evolution of modern society toward more abstract social relationships.     

Does social capital affect SNS usage? A look at the roles of subjective well-being and social identity

This study views social capital as a precursor of SNS (Social Network Service) use, which departs from the previous thoughts that considered social capital as the outcome of SNS activities. Drawing upon the theoretical premises regarding network-based social capital, this study examines the roles of subjective well-being and social identity in terms of their moderating as well as mediating influences on SNS use. This study sought to sub-categorize social capital and SNS use with a view to providing more refined theoretical and practical implications. The study’s main objectives are three-fold: First, the study verifies whether social capital, categorized into bridging and bonding capital, influences one’s SNS use as measured by qualitative use and quantitative use. Second, the study aims to confirm whether subjective well-being mediates between social capital and SNS use. Third, it examines whether social identity moderates the relationship between social capital and SNS use.The study result indicates that bridging capital only had a significant impact on qualitative use. However, subjective well-being did not mediate the relationship between social capital and SNS use. Finally, the cognitive identity caused significant difference in the effect of social capital on quantitative SNS use, whereas cognitive and affective identities caused significant differences in regards to the effects of bridging capital on qualitative SNS use.     

Avatar-driven self-disclosure: The virtual me is the actual me

Considering the importance of self-disclosure in building relationships and bonds, it is vital to investigate how self-disclosure is affected by avatars utilized in many online communities. In this study, we tested a research model that explores how perceived avatar-self similarity affects self-disclosure via different theoretical constructs such as self-awareness, self-presence, and identifiability. The research model was empirically tested with data from a web-based survey of 209 Second Life users. Results revealed that avatar similarity impacts self-disclosure but with varying effects, depending on how it is mediated by variables of identifiability, self-awareness and self-presence. Specifically, appearance similarity affects homophily, which heightens self-awareness. This results in increased feelings of self-presence, which positively affects self-disclosure. Homophily also has the effect of heightening perceptions of identifiability, which decreases self-disclosure. Implications and applications are discussed.     

Perceived enablers of 3D virtual environments for virtual team learning and innovation

Virtual teams consist of geographically distributed employees working with a common goal using mostly technology for communication and collaboration. Virtual teams face a number of challenges, discussed in the literature in terms of communication through technology, difficulty in building trust, conveying social cues, and creating awareness, as well as cultural differences. These challenges impact collaboration, but also learning and innovation. This research focuses on how a social medium, the 3D virtual environment, is perceived to enable learning and innovation in virtual teams. We study this through a qualitative study based on interviews of distributed work managers’ perception of VEs. The major findings are that VEs are perceived to create collaborative learning atmospheres for virtual teams in terms of enabling engagement, a shared context awareness, and support in social network building. Another finding is that VEs are perceived to enable team learning, knowledge development, and collaboration through persistence of content, information sharing, learning through role-plays and simulations, and visualization. Furthermore, VEs enable the development of co-created content as well as new ways of working in virtual teams.     

Proteus vs. social identity effects on virtual brainstorming

ABSTRACT

Avatars are known to influence behaviour through their individual identity cues (Proteus effect) and through their shared identity cues (Social identity effect). The aim of this study was to investigate these two processes in a crossed design, in order to examine their interaction in the context of a brainstorming task. To activate the Proteus effect, we used creative avatars resembling inventors, and to make social identity salient, we made the avatars wear the traditional clothing of the participants’ school. The resulting factorial design included four conditions: creative avatars with or without social identity cues, and non-creative avatars with or without social identity cues. The results show that creative performance was higher with creative than non-creative avatars, but only in the absence of social identity cues. Furthermore, the presence of social identity cues increased social identification to the group, but this unexpectedly decreased creative performance. This result is discussed together with an analysis of the meaning of the social identity cues we used, which appeared to be unrelated to creativity. This discussion highlights that the effects of social identity cues on performance are complex and may be moderated by their meaning and the particular facet of social identity they make salient.     

Younger and older users׳ recognition of virtual agent facial expressions

As technology advances, robots and virtual agents will be introduced into the home and healthcare settings to assist individuals, both young and old, with everyday living tasks. Understanding how users recognize an agent׳s social cues is therefore imperative, especially in social interactions. Facial expression, in particular, is one of the most common non-verbal cues used to display and communicate emotion in on-screen agents (Cassell et al., 2000). Age is important to consider because age-related differences in emotion recognition of human facial expression have been supported (Ruffman et al., 2008), with older adults showing a deficit for recognition of negative facial expressions. Previous work has shown that younger adults can effectively recognize facial emotions displayed by agents (Bartneck and Reichenbach, 2005, Courgeon et al., 2009, Courgeon et al., 2011, Breazeal, 2003); however, little research has compared in-depth younger and older adults’ ability to label a virtual agent׳s facial emotions, an import consideration because social agents will be required to interact with users of varying ages. If such age-related differences exist for recognition of virtual agent facial expressions, we aim to understand if those age-related differences are influenced by the intensity of the emotion, dynamic formation of emotion (i.e., a neutral expression developing into an expression of emotion through motion), or the type of virtual character differing by human-likeness. Study 1 investigated the relationship between age-related differences, the implication of dynamic formation of emotion, and the role of emotion intensity in emotion recognition of the facial expressions of a virtual agent (iCat). Study 2 examined age-related differences in recognition expressed by three types of virtual characters differing by human-likeness (non-humanoid iCat, synthetic human, and human). Study 2 also investigated the role of configural and featural processing as a possible explanation for age-related differences in emotion recognition. First, our findings show age-related differences in the recognition of emotions expressed by a virtual agent, with older adults showing lower recognition for the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and neutral. These age-related difference might be explained by older adults having difficulty discriminating similarity in configural arrangement of facial features for certain emotions; for example, older adults often mislabeled the similar emotions of fear as surprise. Second, our results did not provide evidence for the dynamic formation improving emotion recognition; but, in general, the intensity of the emotion improved recognition. Lastly, we learned that emotion recognition, for older and younger adults, differed by character type, from best to worst: human, synthetic human, and then iCat. Our findings provide guidance for design, as well as the development of a framework of age-related differences in emotion recognition.