Sediment flux from Lesser Zab River in Dokan Reservoir: Implications for the sustainability of long‐term water resources in Iraq

Prudent management of Iraqi water resources under climate change conditions requires plans to be based on actual figures of the storage capacity of existing reservoirs. With the absence of sediment flushing measures, the actual storage capacity of Dokan Reservoir (operated since 1959) has been affected by the amount of sediment delivered during its operational life leading to an undetermined reduction in its storage capacity. In consequence, there has not been an update on the dam's operational storage capacity curves. In this research, new operational curves were established for the reservoir based on a recent bathymetric survey undertaken in 2014. The reduction in reservoir capacity during the period between 1959 and 2014 was calculated by the mean of the difference between the designed storage capacity and the storage capacity which was concluded from the 2014 bathymetric survey. Moreover, the rate of sediment transported to the reservoir was calculated based on the overall quantities of accumulated sediment and the water discharge of the Lesser Zab River into the reservoir. The results indicate that the dam capacity is reduced by 25% due to sedimentation of an estimated volume of 367 million cubic metres at water level 480 m.a.s.l. The annual sedimentation rate was about 6.6 million cubic metres, and the sediment yield was estimated to be 701.2 t?km^?3?year.     

Linking Drought Indicators to Policy Actions in the Tagus Basin Drought Management Plan

One crucial aspect of drought management plans is to establish a link between basin drought state and management actions. Basin state is described by a drought indicator system that includes variables like precipitation, streamflow, reservoir inflow, reservoir storage and groundwater piezometric levels. Basin policy consists on a catalogue of management actions, ranging from enforcing demand reduction strategies to establishing priority of users to allocate scarce water or approving emergency works. In this paper, the methodology applied in the Tagus Basin Drought Management Plan to link operational drought indicators to policy actions in regulated water supply systems is presented. The methodology is based on the evaluation of the probability of not being able to satisfy system demands for a given time horizon. A simplified model of every water resources system in the basin was built to evaluate the threshold of reservoir volume that is required to overcome the drought situation without deficit. For each reservoir level, a set of policy actions is proposed with the goal of guaranteeing essential demands during drought conditions. The methodology was validated with a simulation of system behavior for 60 years of historic streamflow series, finding acceptable results in most systems.     

Reservoir Operation Incorporating Hedging Rules and Operational Inflow Forecasts

Reservoir operation incorporating a naïve hedging strategy and operational inflow forecasting is studied in this paper. Gridded precipitation forecasts from climate model, ECHAM4.5, are used as potential predictors for reservoir inflow forecasting. In building a statistical predicting model, principal component analysis (PCA) is used to reduce the dimension of the regression model. Performance evaluation indices, including water supply satisfaction ratio, environmental flow satisfaction ratio, end-of-month storage satisfaction ratio and flood prevention capacity index, are defined. Three scenarios where a naïve hedging operation rule under different set of reservoir inflow are investigated. These are evaluated for a water supply reservoir, Falls Lake Reservoir, at Neuse River in the southeast United State. Reservoir simulation with monthly average inflow serves as a benchmark. The utility of operational inflow forecasts is quantified by the improvements of performance indices. Results show that reservoir operation under perfect inflow forecasting has the highest values for most indices. Compared to climatology, operational inflow forecasts result in higher index values. Among all the performance indices, end-of-month storage satisfaction ratio is the most sensitive index to inflow information. Limitation of this study and further work is also discussed.     

南水北调中线水源区和受水区干旱遭遇风险评估

基于 1961—2019 年气象观测数据和 CMIP6 模式数据,利用标准化降水蒸散指数（standardized?precipitation evapotranspiration?index,SPEI）计算南水北调中线水源区和受水区的干旱指数,并利用经验正交分析法、主成分分 析法和 Copula 函数法,对水源区与受水区的干旱演变规律进行分析,揭示干旱遭遇的联合概率分布,并对未来干 旱遭遇进行预估。研究结果表明：水源区和受水区干旱事件遭遇频繁,1965—1971 年和 1987—2005 年均出现较 为严重的干旱遭遇事件,同时在 1970 年代中后期至 1985 年前后,出现了长期明显的区域差异性;水源区和受水区 中旱和重旱的联合重现期分别约为 18 年一遇（5.51%）和 123 年一遇（0.81%）,两地同时出现极端干旱的重现期约 为 323 年一遇（0.31%）;不同气候情景下以年尺度 SPEI 指数,对南水北调中线水源区和受水区的未来干旱事件预 估表明,未来水源区和受水区在 SSP1-2.6 情景下干旱遭遇次数相对较少,而在 SSP2-4.5 情景下的 2034—2036 年、 2044—2045 年以及在 SSP5-8.5 情景下的 2032—2033 年、2068—2070 年,将有可能发生较严重的干旱遭遇事 件。     

Real-Time Operation of Reservoir System by Genetic Programming

Reservoir operation policy depends on specific values of deterministic variables and predictable actions as well as stochastic variables, in which small differences affect water release and reservoir operation efficiency. Operational rule curves of reservoir are policies which relate water release to the deterministic and stochastic variables such as storage volume and inflow. To operate a reservoir system in real time, a prediction model may be coupled with rule curves to estimate inflow as a stochastic variable. Inappropriate selection of this prediction model increases calculations and impacts the reservoir operation efficiency. Thus, extraction of an operational policy simultaneously with inflow prediction helps the operator to make an appropriate decision to calculate how much water to release from the reservoir without employing a prediction model. This paper addresses the use of genetic programming (GP) to develop a reservoir operation policy simultaneously with inflow prediction. To determine a water release policy, two operational rule curves are considered in each period by using (1) inflow and storage volume at the beginning of each period and (2) inflow of the 1^st, 2^nd, 12^th previous periods and storage volume at the beginning of each period. The obtained objective functions of those rules have only 4.86 and 0.44?% difference in the training and testing data sets. These results indicate that the proposed rule based on deterministic variables is effective in determining optimal rule curves simultaneously with inflow prediction for reservoirs.     

气候变化对嘉陵江流域水资源量的影响分析

 嘉陵江是长江的最大支流,流域面积约16万km2。针对2050,2100年不同的气候变化情景,选取较为不利的参数组合,根据降水、气温、湿度、风速、日照等气候要素的变化,建立潜在蒸发量模型计算流域的潜在蒸发量（ET0）,再根据流域内植被的蒸散发系数（Kc）,计算流域的面平均蒸散发量（ETc）。并利用流域面平均降水量减去径流深得到流域的实际蒸散发量,对计算的流域面平均蒸散发量进行验证。对不同的水平年利用降水的预测成果（气候变化情景不同具有不同的降水量预测成果）及计算流域的面平均蒸散发量,根据水量平衡模型分析计算气候变化对嘉陵江流域水量的影响。结果表明：不利条件下2050年年径流将减少23.0%～27.9%;2100将减少28.2%～35.2%;2050,2100年平均年径流分别相当于目前7年一遇和12年一遇的干旱年。由此说明,气候变化对流域内的水资源量影响十分显著。      

基于SWAT模型的秦淮河流域气候变化水文响应研究

为了解气候变化对水文水资源的影响机理,以秦淮河流域为研究区构建SWAT模型,使用SWAT-CUP对模型进行参数敏感性分析、率定及验证,并采用任意假设法设计未来气候情景,分析温度及降雨变化对流域径流及实际蒸散发量的影响。结果表明:模型在月径流模拟中具有较高的精度,适用于秦淮河流域气候变化下的水文响应研究;气温降低或降雨量上升都会引起流域径流量增加,反之则减少;实际蒸散发量与降雨量正相关,而实际蒸散发量对气温变化的响应不明显;平水年径流量对降雨量变化的响应较强,枯水年径流量对温度变化的响应较强;枯水年实际蒸散发量对降雨量变化的响应较强。     

Development of a Demand Driven Hydro-climatic Model for Drought Planning

In recent years, droughts with increasing severity and frequency have been experienced around the world due to climate change effects. Water planning and management during droughts needs to deal with water demand variability, uncertainties in streamflow prediction, conflicts over water resources allocation, and the absence of necessary emergency schemes in drought situations. Reservoirs could play an important role in drought mitigation; therefore, development of an algorithm for operation of reservoirs in drought periods could help to mitigate the drought impacts by reducing the expected water shortages. For this purpose, the probable drought’s characteristics and their variations in response to factors such as climate change should be incorporated. This study aims at developing a contingency planning scheme for operation of reservoirs in drought periods using hedging rules with the objective of decreasing the maximum water deficit. The case study for evaluation of the performance of the proposed algorithm is the Sattarkhan reservoir in the Aharchay watershed, located in the northwestern part of Iran. The trend evaluations of the hydro-climatic variables show that the climate change has already affected streamflow in the region and has increased water scarcity and drought severity. To incorporate the climate change study in reservoir planning; streamflow should be simulated under climate change impacts. For this purpose, the climatic variables including temperature and precipitation in the future under climate change impacts are simulated using downscaled GCM (General Circulation Model) outputs to derive scenarios for possible future drought events. Then a hydrological model is developed to simulate the river streamflow, based on the downscaled data. The results show that the proposed methodology leads to less water deficit and decreases the drought damages in the study area.     

大型灌区骨干水库分期旱限水位研究

水库作为常见的重要水利工程设施,在区域水资源承载力水量、水质、水生态和水流更新等要素调控中具有举足轻重的地位和作用,在降水径流减少的枯水季节显得尤其重要。旱限水位是水库在低水位调度运行的控制性特征水位,其合理设置与科学运用对区域水资源高效利用意义重大。为此以淠史杭灌区梅山水库的来水特性和用户需水特性为基础,首先采用Hausdorff维数分形方法划分了梅山水库入库径流干旱预警时段,进而通过不同水平年各预警期内来水、供水调节计算了初始旱限水位:旱警水位和旱枯水位,并以水库灌区水资源系统长系列模拟模型及优化模型为依托,优化确定了梅山水库不同预警期的旱限水位,最后分别从水库运行、灌区灌溉、生产生活供水、生态用水以及水力发电等多角度评估了旱限水位的合理性,为水利部门指导水库灌区抗旱运行,制订相应抗旱预案提供技术参考。     

Integrated Reservoir Management System for Adaptation to Climate Change: The Nakdong River Basin in Korea

This study begins with the premise that current reservoir management systems do not take into account the potential effects of climate change on optimal performance. This study suggests an approach in which multi-purpose reservoirs can adapt to climate change using optimal rule curves developed by an integrated water resources management system. The system has three modules: the Weather Generator model, the Hydrological Model, and the Differential Evolution Optimization Model. Two general circulation models (GCMs) are selected as examples of both dry and wet conditions to generate future climate scenarios. This study is using the Nakdong River basin in Korea as a case study, where water supply is provided from the reservoir system. Three different climate change conditions (historic, wet and dry) are investigated through the compilation of six 60 years long scenarios. The optimal rule curves for three multi-purpose reservoirs in the basin are developed for each scenario. The results indicate that although the rule curve for large-size reservoir is less sensitive to climate change, medium or small-size reservoirs are very sensitive to those changes. We further conclude that the large reservoir should be used to release more water, while small or medium-size reservoirs should store inflow to mitigate severe drought damages in the basin.     

Spatiotemporal Change of Blue Water and Green Water Resources in the Headwater of Yellow River Basin,China

The headwater of Yellow River Basin (HYRB) is crucial for the water resources of the whole basin in Northwest China. Based on the semi-distributed hydrological model “Soil and Water Assessment Tool” (SWAT), the spatiotemporal change trends of blue water and green water resources in the HYRB were analyzed quantificationally. By using the Sequential Uncertainty Fitting program (SUFI-2), the model was calibrated at Tangnaihai hydrological station and uncertainty analysis was performed. The results showed that the total water resources decreased by 1.08 billion m³ over the past five decades in the HYRB. Blue water and green water storage (soil water) presented the downtrend, while green water flow (actual evapotranspiration) increased between 1961 and 2010. The decrease in blue water resources were mainly attributed to the decrease in precipitation in the southwest parts of the study area while the increase in actual evapotranspiration and the decrease in soil water were the results of the uptrend of air temperature. In 1990s, an enormous transition occurred between the blue water (24.86 %) and green water flow (63.46 %). At seasonal scale, the largest down trend of blue water and uptrend of actual evapotranspiration all occurred in autumn. The decrease ratios of them were 88.3 and 83.1 % in inter-annual variation, respectively. The study can provided a scientific basis for integrated water resources management under the background of global climate change and human activity.     

汉江上游水资源时空演变及成因分析

采用1930年-2008年长系列资料,对汉江上游水资源时空演变情况进行了系统分析。对丹江口水库天然入库径流的丰枯变化规律进行了分析,并从降雨及土地利用变化引起降雨径流关系变化的角度分析了丹江口天然入库径流变化的原因。通过对比丹江口水库天然与实测入库径流,分析了汉江上游耗水变化情况。根据人类活动及气候条件,将资料划分为1990年以前、1990年-1999年、2000年以后三个时段,对比分析了径流平均年内分配的变化,从降雨、人类活动影响等方面进行了成因分析。通过研究降雨空间分布变化,分析了汉江上游水资源的空间变化情况。     

气候变化对大海波水库来水及用水影响

为分析在未来气候变化情景下大海波水库来水及用水的变化情况,选取楚雄站蒸发(1953年-2001年)、降水(1953年-2009年)、气温等气象资料,以及大海波水库(1990年-2009年)来水量资料,采用线性回归法、Mann-Kendall及Spearman趋势检测法对楚雄站点的气象要素进行趋势检测,并计算了水库下游参考作物需水量。结果表明:大海波水库的来水量呈减少趋势,下游参考作物需水量呈下降趋势;在未来气候情景下,楚雄年平均气温将升高2.56℃,年降水变化率为5.9%,气温升高时,下游参考作物需水量增加,对大海波水库的供水带来一定的不利影响。     

白洋淀湿地入淀水量演变归因分析

以白洋淀水文数据为基础,采用敏感系数法,分析了气候变化、人工取用水及蒸渗过程改变对入淀水量变化的影响。在研究时段内,湿地入淀水量、流域降水量及潜在蒸散发量都呈下降趋势,其中入淀水量下降尤为明显。气候变化、人工取用水及蒸渗过程改变对入淀水量变化的影响分别为25.1%、57.53%和17.4%,而人类活动整体对入淀水量影响达到了74.9%,因此人类活动是入淀水量减少的主要原因。     

Adaptive Reservoir Management by Reforming the Zone-based Hedging Rules against Multi-year Droughts

In this study, the zone-based hedging rule, which is the main operating policy adopted from multipurpose reservoirs in Korea is adjusted to reflect the multi-year droughts caused by climate change. Annual synthetic inflow series with different magnitudes of long memory were generated using the autoregressive fractional integrated moving average (ARFIMA) model. The generated inflow series were then disaggregated into 10-day series and utilized as input variables to derive the alternative hedging rules. The alternative hedging rules from this study were used in adaptive reservoir management by newly updated information. Finally, the performance of the suggested policy is measured in terms of frequency and magnitude under the historical inflow series. As a result, adaptive reservoir management demonstrated improvements in the following terms of the frequency of critical failures (water deficit ratio greater than 30%): 6.14% of the simulation period in the status quo (SQ) policy, and 2.99% in the adaptive management. However, the overall reliability of the reservoir during the simulation horizon was better when operated with the SQ policy (41.19%) than the results from adaptive management (26.42%). Because this result is in a good agreement with the original objective of the hedging rules, the adaptive policy suggested in this study holds promise and may be utilized in further reservoir management with an increase of potential drought risk from climate change.

     

Operating rules of irrigation reservoir under climate change and its application for the Dongwushi Reservoir in China

Since agriculture development would be affected by climate change, the reservoir operation for agricultural irrigation should be adjusted. However, there are to date few literatures addressing how to design adaptive operating rules for an irrigation reservoir. This study aims to analyze the adaption of fixed operating rules and to derive adaptive operating rules under climate change. The deterministic optimization model is established with the solving method of two-dimensional dynamic programming (TDDP), and its optimal trajectory is supplied to derive reservoir operating rules at time intervals of crop growth periods. Then, two alternative operating rules, including fixed operating rules based on historical data and adaptive operating rules based on climate change data, are extracted using the fitting method with the multiple linear regression model. The alteration of reservoir inflow under climate change is calculated by the Budyko formula. A case study of the China’s Dongwushi Reservoir shows that: (1) fixed operating rules are unable to adapt climate change in the future scenario. Thus, adaptive operating rules should be established, (2) adaptive operating rules can reduce profits loss resulting from climate change, and improve field soil water storages, and (3) precipitation reduction by 7%/40a is the major cause for agricultural profits loss, whereas, the decrement of agricultural profits is less than that of precipitation, which indicates agricultural crops have the resilience to resist the adverse influence from precipitation decrease. These findings are helpful for adaptive operation of irrigation reservoirs under climate change.     

气候变但对石羊河流域水资源影响分析

本文研究了石羊河流域气候变化对水资源和干旱的影响,旨在为将来的水资源配置提供了决策依据。研究采用了Mann-Kendall秋序检测方法对石羊河流域气候变化趋势进行了分析。在变化趋势的分析中,同时引入一种适合非线性和非平稳时间序列突变检测的新方法一B-G分割算法来检测其趋势的突变性。研究结果表明:石羊河流域上游降水存在突变;而整个流域的气温均存在突变;上游和中游潜在蒸发量(PET )均存在突变;而整个流域的有效降雨不存在突变。特别是进入20世纪90年代后期以后,年平均温度增加幅度更为明显,潜在蒸发量(PET )也在增加,而降雨增加却不明显。     

Assessment of Water Resources Development Projects under Conditions of Climate Change Using Efficiency Indexes (EIs)

The purpose of this study is to evaluate Gharanghu multi-purpose reservoir system (East Azerbaijan, Iran) using efficiency indexes (EIs) affected by climate change. At first, the effects of climate change on inflow to the reservoir, as well as changes in the demand volume over a time interval of 30 years (2040–2069) are reviewed. Simulation results show that inflow to the reservoir is decreased in climate change interval compared to the baseline interval (1971–2000), so that comparison of long-term average monthly inflow to the reservoir in climate change interval is reduced about 25% compared to the baseline. Also, water demand in climate change interval will increase, namely volume of water demand for agricultural, drinking and industrial, and environmental in climate change interval is expected to increase by 20%. The simulation results of the water evaluation and planning (WEAP) model is used to determine EIs of multi-purpose reservoir system. Next, three scenarios of water supply for climate change interval are introduced to WEAP model, keeping variable of parameter related to water demand volume (based on different percentages of supply) and keeping constant of the parameter related to the volume of inflow to the reservoir. Results show that system EIs in climate change interval will have a disadvantage compared to the baseline. So that, reliability, vulnerability, resiliency and flexibility indexes in climate change interval based on 100% of water supply compared to the baseline will decrease 18%, increase 150%, decrease 33%, and decrease 47%, respectively. These indexes based on 85% of supply compared to the baseline will decrease 12%, increase 75%, decrease 30%, and decrease 39%, respectively. Also, those based on 70% of supply compared to the baseline will decrease 1%, will be without change, decrease 18%, and decrease 18%, respectively. Changes in indexes in future interval indicate the need to manage water resource development projects in the basin.     

基于模糊集对分析的灌区水库旱限水位及供水策略优化研究

随着经济社会发展和气候条件改变,我国区域干旱问题日益突出,水库在抗旱减灾过程中的作用越来越凸显,旱限水位的提出与应用对有效发挥大中型水库在抗旱中的调控作用、缓解流域旱情具有重要意义。针对旱限水位研究现状,本文以史河灌区梅山水库为例,首先考虑城乡供水、农业灌溉、水力发电和生态环境等诸多因素,构建基于模糊集对分析法的水库灌区水资源系统运行效果综合评价模型,并以水资源系统综合运行等级最优为目标,以分期分级旱限水位、灌溉限供措施(基于水库来水特征和作物生长特性)为优化变量,运用免疫遗传算法进行系统优化求解,最后对比有无旱限水位下水库水资源系统综合运行效果,并分析了不同控制方式下水库供水变化和灌区作物因旱减产风险。结果显示：该优化方法相较于以水库供水经济效益为目标旱限水位确定方法,多项年均指标都有较大改善,其中梅山水库经济效益提高了46万元,充反调节水库水量增加了555万m³,而水库弃水量减少了566万m³;史河灌区塘坝供水量增加了253万m³,而作物减产率下降了3.32%,同时作物因旱减产风险降低了3.15%。可见,运用系统综合...     

Modeling Climate Change Effects on Streams and Reservoirs with HSPF

This study deals with the effects of the expected climate change on the hydrology of watersheds and on water resources. HSPF (Hydrological Simulation Program—Fortran) has been used to model streamflow and reservoir volume as realizations of watershed response. Climate change scenarios have been prepared based on trends expected in western Turkey in the first half of the twenty-first century and a hypothetical watershed with different land uses has been simulated. Changes in streamflow due to landuse, soil type and climate change have been examined using flood frequency and low flow analysis. The simulations have revealed quantitatively the difference among the responses of watersheds with no vegetative cover and with forests or pasture to trends in temperature and precipitation. It has also been found that monthly variations are very important in predicting the future response of watersheds. Significant differences have been observed in streamflows and reservoir volumes on a monthly basis between scenarios, soil types and land uses. Though the effects of temperature and precipitation act to counterbalance their effects on a long-term scale, on a monthly basis they can act to reinforce their effects and create drought periods and floods.