Mechanical properties of Si nanowires as revealed by in situ transmission electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations

Deformation and fracture mechanisms of ultrathin Si nanowires (NWs), with diameters of down to ~9 nm, under uniaxial tension and bending were investigated by using in situ transmission electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. It was revealed that the mechanical behavior of Si NWs had been closely related to the wire diameter, loading conditions, and stress states. Under tension, Si NWs deformed elastically until abrupt brittle fracture. The tensile strength showed a clear size dependence, and the greatest strength was up to 11.3 GPa. In contrast, under bending, the Si NWs demonstrated considerable plasticity. Under a bending strain of <14%, they could repeatedly be bent without cracking along with a crystalline-to-amorphous phase transition. Under a larger strain of >20%, the cracks nucleated on the tensed side and propagated from the wire surface, whereas on the compressed side a plastic deformation took place because of dislocation activities and an amorphous transition.     

Measurement of the bending strength of vapor-liquid-solid grown silicon nanowires

The fracture strength of silicon nanowires grown on a [111] silicon substrate by the vapor-liquid-solid process was measured. The nanowires, with diameters between 100 and 200 nm and a typical length of 2 microm, were subjected to bending tests using an atomic force microscopy setup inside a scanning electron microscope. The average strength calculated from the maximum nanowire deflection before fracture was around 12 GPa, which is 6% of the Young's modulus of silicon along the nanowire direction. This value is close to the theoretical fracture strength, which indicates that surface or volume defects, if present, play only a minor role in fracture initiation.     

Ultimate-strength germanium nanowires

Semiconducting nanowires (NWs) are important "building blocks" for potential electrical and electromechanical devices. Here, we report on the mechanical properties of supercritical fluid-grown Ge NWs with radii between 20 and 80 nm. An analysis of the bending and tensile stresses during deformation and failure reveals that while the NWs have a Young's modulus comparable to the bulk value, they have an ultimate strength of 15 GPa, which is the maximum theoretical strength of these materials. This exceptional strength is the highest reported for any conventional semiconductor material and demonstrates that these NWs are without defect or flaws that compromise the mechanical properties.     

Elasticity and yield strength of pentagonal silver nanowires: In situ bending tests

This paper reports in situ mechanical characterization of silver nanowires (Ag NWs) inside a scanning electron microscope using a cantilevered beam bending technique. Measurements consisted in controlled bending of a cantilevered NW by the tip of an atomic force microscope glued to the force sensor. Relatively high degree of elasticity followed by either plastic deformation or fracture was observed in bending experiments. Experimental data were numerically fitted into the model based on the elastic beam theory and values of Young modulus and yield strength were extracted. Measurements were performed on twenty Ag NWs with diameters from 76 nm to 211 nm. Average Young modulus and yield strength were found to be 90 GPa and 4.8 GPa respectively. In addition, fatigue tests with several millions of cycles were performed and high fatigue resistance of Ag NWs was demonstrated.     

Mechanical elasticity of vapour-liquid-solid grown GaN nanowires

Mechanical elasticity of hexagonal wurtzite GaN nanowires with hexagonal cross sections grown through a vapour-liquid-solid (VLS) method was investigated using a three-point bending method with a digital-pulsed force mode (DPFM) atomic force microscope (AFM). In a diameter range of 57-135?nm, bending deflection and effective stiffness, or spring constant, profiles were recorded over the entire length of end-supported GaN nanowires and compared to the classic elastic beam models. Profiles reveal that the bending behaviour of the smallest nanowire (57.0?nm in diameter) is as a fixed beam, while larger nanowires (89.3-135.0?nm in diameter) all show simple-beam boundary conditions. Diameter dependence on the stiffness and elastic modulus are observed for these GaN nanowires. The GaN nanowire of 57.0?nm diameter displays the lowest stiffness (0.98?N?m(-1)) and the highest elastic modulus (400 ± 15?GPa). But with increasing diameter, elastic modulus decreases, while stiffness increases. Elastic moduli for most tested nanowires range from 218 to 317?GPa, which approaches or meets the literature values for bulk single crystal and GaN nanowires with triangular cross sections from other investigators. The present results together with further tests on plastic and fracture processes will provide fundamental information for the development of GaN nanowire devices.     

Silicon carbide (NicalonTM) fibre-reinforced borosilicate glass composites: mechanical properties

The objective of this study was to assess the applicability of an extrinsic carbon coating to tailor the interface in a unidirectional NicalonTM–borosilicate glass composite for maximum strength. Three unidirectional NicalonTM fibre-reinforced borosilicate glass composites were fabricated with different interfaces by using (1) uncoated (2) 25 nm thick carbon-coated and (3) 140 nm thick carbon coated Nicalon fibres. The tensile behaviours of the three systems differed significantly. Damage developments during tensile loading were recorded by a replica technique. Fibre–matrix interfacial frictional stresses were measured. A shear lag model was used to quantitatively relate the interfacial properties, damage and elastic modulus. Tensile specimen design was varied to obtain desirable failure mode. Tensile strengths of NicalonTM fibres in all three types of composites were measured by the fracture mirror method. Weibull analysis of the fibre strength data was performed. Fibre strength data obtained from the fracture mirror method were compared with strength data obtained by single fibre tensile testing of as-received fibres and fibres extracted from the composites. The fibre strength data were used in various composite strength models to predict strengths. Nicalon–borosilicate glass composites with ultimate tensile strength values as high as 585 MPa were produced using extrinsic carbon coatings on the fibres. Fibre strength measurements indicated fibre strength degradation during processing. Fracture mirror analysis gave higher fibre strengths than extracted single fibre tensile testing for all three types of composites. The fibre bundle model gave reasonable composite ultimate tensile strength predictions using fracture mirror based fibre strength data. Characterization and analysis suggest that the full reinforcing potential of the fibres was not realized and the composite strength can be further increased by optimizing the fibre coating thickness and processing parameters. The use of microcrack density measurements, indentation–frictional stress measurements and shear lag modelling have been demonstrated for assessing whether the full reinforcing and toughening potential of the fibres has been realized. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Doping of Si into GaN nanowires and optical properties of resulting composites

Doping of Si into GaN nanowires has been successfully attained via thermal evaporation in the presence of a suitable gas atmosphere. Analysis indicated that the Si-doped GaN nanowire is a single crystal with a hexagonal wurtzite structure, containing 2.2 atom % of Si. The broadening and the shift of Raman peak to lower frequency are observed, which may be attributed to surface disorder and various strengths of the stress. The band-gap emission (358 nm) of Si-doped GaN nanowires relative to that (370 nm) of GaN nanowires has an apparent blue shift (approximately 12 nm), which can be ascribed to doping impurity Si.     

Molecular dynamic simulations of uniaxial tension at nanoscale of semiconductor materials for micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) applications

Molecular dynamic (MD) simulations of uniaxial tension at nanoscale were conducted on two semiconductor materials, namely, silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) to determine their mechanical properties and investigate the nature of deformation under applied load at nanolevel. A general form of Tersoff-type, three-body potential was used for the interaction between the Si atoms and between the Ge atoms in the simulations. Both, Si and Ge were found to exhibit a linear elastic behavior followed by a nonlinear increase in stress in the plastic region up to the ultimate tensile stress (instead of catastrophic brittle fracture soon after the elastic limit, which is typical of most nominally brittle materials at macrolevel). Further loading beyond the ultimate tensile stress resulted in catastrophic failure of these materials by a ductile fracture mode, namely, slip at 45° to the loading direction. The strain at failure was found to be much higher than the corresponding values at macroscale possibly due to the higher loading rates used. Based on the simulation results, the Young's modulii of Si and Ge in the [100] direction were determined to be 130 and 103 GPa, respectively, and the ultimate strengths, 25 and 20 GPa, respectively, at 500 m s⁻¹. These results are in reasonable agreement with the experimental and simulation results reported in the literature. The effect of strain rate via the rate of loading (10–500 m s⁻¹, where 1 m s⁻¹ corresponds to 10⁻² Å ps⁻¹) on the nature of deformation and the measured properties were also investigated. As the rate of loading (or the strain rate) decreases, the stress–strain curves more or less overlap up to the ultimate strength with a slight decrease in the ultimate tensile stress but a significant decrease in the value of strain at failure or strain at ultimate tensile stress.     

Non-stoichiometric curing effect on fracture toughness of nanosilica particulate-reinforced epoxy composites

Non-stoichiometric curing effects on the fracture toughness behaviors of nanosilica particulate-reinforced epoxy composites were experimentally investigated in this study by comparing them with bending strengths to take into consideration the effect of interaction between nanoparticles and network structures in matrix resins. The matrixes were prepared by curing them with an excess mixture of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A-type epoxy resin as the curing agent for the stoichiometric condition. The volume fractions of the silica particles with a median diameter of 240 nm were constantly 0.2 for all composites. The neat epoxy resins and the composites were cured non-stoichiometrically to change the crosslinking densities of the neat epoxy resins and the matrix resins of the composites within 2740–490 mol/m³. The fracture toughnesses and bending strengths of the composites and the neat epoxy resins strongly depended on the crosslinking densities in the resins. Although the fracture toughness decreased monotonously from that of the stoichiometrically cured resins as the crosslinking density decreased, the fracture toughnesses of composites were largest at a slightly lower crosslinking density of approximately 2490 mol/m³ from the stoichiometric condition of 2740 mol/m³. The fracture toughness and the bending strength were improved for crosslinking densities higher than 2000 mol/m³ by adding particles. At crosslinking density lower than 2000 mol/m³, the particles worked against the mechanical properties as defects in matrix resins.     

The elevated temperature strengths of alumina-aluminium and magnesium-aluminium samples

Pairs of alumina cones were soldered with aluminium at 1000° C and tested in tension at 20 to 500° C. The fracture strengths of the samples fell between the ultimate tensile strength of aluminium and the fracture strength of alumina, reaching a maximum at a temperature that depended on the thickness of the aluminium solder layer. The sample fracture surfaces produced by room temperature strength tests were entirely ceramic but became increasingly metallic at higher test temperatures. In contrast, the fracture strengths of magnesia cones soldered with aluminium did not peak between 20 and 500° C, and the location of the fracture surfaces could not be related to the testing temperature or sample strengths. It is argued that the effects observed with alumina-aluminium samples are due to the conflicting influence of the testing temperature on relaxation of residual stresses within the ceramic and the ability of the metal solder layer to deform. In the case of the reactive magnesia-aluminium system, strengths seemed to be largely determined by the formation of a MgO.Al₂O₃ spinel layer at the ceramicmetal interface during soldering and by the fragility of the porous ceramic.     

Mechanical and electronic properties of diamond nanowires under tensile strain from first principles

The atomic and electronic structures, heat of formation, Young's modulus, and ideal strength of hydrogenated diamond nanowires (DNWs) with different cross-sections (from 0.06 to 2.80 nm(2)) and crystallographic orientations ((100), (110), (111), and (112)) have been investigated by means of first-principles simulations. For thinner DNWs (cross-sectional area less than 0.6 nm(2)), preferential growth orientation along (111) is observed. The Young's modulus and ideal strength of these DNWs decrease with decreasing cross-section and show anisotropic effects. Moreover, the band gap of DNWs is sensitive to the size, crystallographic orientation and tensile strain, implying the possibility of a tunable gap. The effective mass at the edges of the conduction band and valence band are also obtained. These theoretical results are helpful for designing novel optoelectronic devices and electromechanical sensors using diamond nanowires.     

Mechanical properties of ultrahigh-strength gold nanowires

Nanowires have attracted considerable interest as nanoscale interconnects and as the active components of both electronic and electromechanical devices. Nanomechanical measurements are a challenge, but remain key to the development and processing of novel nanowire-based devices. Here, we report a general method to measure the spectrum of nanowire mechanical properties based on nanowire bending under the lateral load from an atomic force microscope tip. We find that for Au nanowires, Young's modulus is essentially independent of diameter, whereas the yield strength is largest for the smallest diameter wires, with strengths up to 100 times that of bulk materials, and substantially larger than that reported for bulk nanocrystalline metals (BNMs). In contrast to BNMs, nanowire plasticity is characterized by strain-hardening, demonstrating that dislocation motion and pile-up is still operative down to diameters of 40 nm. Possible origins for the different mechanical properties of nanowires and BNMs are discussed.     

一种新型多孔SiC的制备与性能研究

以滤纸和酚醛树脂为原料, 通过模压成型、固化、碳化和渗硅制备出微观结构均匀的多孔碳化硅. 碳化的温度固定时, 多孔碳的气孔率随酚醛树脂用量的增大而减少, 弯曲强度随着酚醛树脂用量的增大而增大. 酚醛树脂/滤纸两种成分的质量比固定时, 气孔率随着碳化温度的升高而减小, 弯曲强度随着碳化温度的升高而增大, 从SEM照片可以看出, 由滤纸纤维的杂乱排列和碳化时不同的收缩率产生了相互连通不规则的孔, 在多孔碳化硅结构中也得以保留. 多孔碳化硅的气孔率随着排硅时间的增加而增大, 强度和韧性随着排硅时间的增加而减小. 在1650℃, 并经过30min排Si, 较大孔隙中的Si就可以排掉, 此时得到的多孔SiC具有较高的强度和韧性.     

New quantized failure criteria: application to nanotubes and nanowires

In this paper new quantized failure criteria are proposed, also for nanoscale applications. The main theories in the context of the strength of solids, i.e., of brittle fracture, dynamic fracture, fatigue and Weibull Statistics are reconsidered according to the proposed “quantization rules”. The “corresponding principle” is verified and thus the classical theories are found to be the limit cases of the quantized counterparts. As an example, our treatment is applied to very recent experimental results on carbon or WS₂ nanotubes and to futurist ultra-nanocrystalline diamond nanowires, for which the tensile, bending and ideal strength are estimated.     

CVD-SiC界面改性涂层对气相渗硅制备C_f/SiC复合材料力学性能的影响

在气相渗硅制备C_f/SiC复合材料时,界面改性涂层非常重要。良好的界面改性涂层一方面起到保护碳纤维不受Si反应侵蚀的作用,另一方面起到调节纤维和基体界面结合状况。通过在C纤维表面制备CVD-SiC涂层来进行界面改性,研究CVD-SiC界面改性涂层对GSI C_f/SiC复合材料力学性能和断裂特征的影响,并分析其影响机制。结果表明:无CVD-SiC涂层改性的C_f/SiC复合材料力学性能较差,呈现脆性断裂特征,其强度、模量和断裂韧度分别为87.6MPa,56.9GPa,2.1MPa·m1/2。随着CVD-SiC涂层厚度的增加,C_f/SiC复合材料的弯曲强度、模量和断裂韧度呈现先升高后降低的趋势,CVD-SiC涂层厚度为1.1μm的C_f/SiC复合材料的力学性能最好,其弯曲强度、模量和断裂韧度分别为231.7MPa,87.3GPa,7.3MPa·m1/2。厚度适中的CVD-SiC界面改性涂层的作用机理主要体现在载荷传递、"阻挡"Si的侵蚀、"调节"界面结合状态3个方面。     

The properties of carbon fibre/SiC composites fabricated through impregnation and pyrolysis of polycarbosilane

Unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced SiC composites were prepared from four types of carbon fibres, PAN-based HSCF, pitch-based HMCF, CF50 and CF70, through nine cycles or twelve cycles of impregnation of polycarbosilane and subsequent pyrolysis at 1200°C. The polycarbosilane-derived matrix was found to be -SiC with a crystallite size of 1.95 nm. The mechanical properties of the composites were evaluated by four-point bending tests. The fracture behavior of each composite was investigated based on load-displacement curves and scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation of fracture surfaces of the specimens after tests. It was found that CF50/SiC and CF70/SiC exhibited high strength and non-brittle fracture mode with multiple matrix cracking and extensive fibre pullout, whereas HSCF/SiC and HMCF/SiC exhibited low strength and brittle fracture mode with almost no fibre pullout. The differences in the fracture modes of these carbon fibre/SiC composites were thought to be due to differences in interfacial bonding between carbon fibres and matrix. Values of flexural strengths of CF70/SiC and CF50/SiC were 967 MPa and 624 MPa, respectively, which were approximately 75% and 38% of the predicted values. The relatively lower strength of CF50/SiC, compared with CF70/SiC, was mainly attributed to the shear failure of CF50/SiC during bending tests.     

A novel method for massive fabrication of β-SiC nanowires

Silicon carbide nanowires (NWs), that were over 200 μm in length and 20–200 nm in diameter, were prepared by high-pressure reaction from SiBONC powder tablets. Annealing temperatures between 1,500 °C and 1,600 °C and Si/B molar ratios between 70:30 and 60:40 were suitable for the growth of the nanowires. The nanowires were fabricated by in situ chemical vapor growth process on the tablets. The SiC nanowires were identified as single crystal β-SiC. The analysis of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed the single crystalline nature of nanowires with a growth direction of <111>. Massive growth of single crystalline SiC nanowires is important to meet the requirements of the fabrication of SiC nanowire-based nanodevices.     

Characterization of tensile properties and microstructures in directionally solidified Al–Si alloys using linear roughness index

The tensile properties in directionally solidified Al–Si alloys and in gravity die casting of the same composition are presented. Examples of relating both the tensile and the microstructural properties of these alloys with the fracture roughness index are indicated. The roughness index was measured on vertical sections cut through the tensile fracture surface. The tensile properties examined were the yield and ultimate tensile strengths, strain at fracture, and Young's modulus. The analyzed microstructural features were porosity, dendrite area fraction, secondary dendrite arm spacing, and Si particle spacing. In almost all cases an unambiguous correlation was found between the roughness index and the tensile or the microstructural properties. A marked improvement in ductility was observed for directionally solidified samples over their gravity die casting processed counterparts. The roughness index diminished going from die cast to direction solidification, and this is likely accompanied by change in the fracture mechanisms.     

Strength of Si3N4/Ni–Cr–Fe alloy joints with test methods: shear, tension, three-point and four-point bending

The experiments were carried out in order to examine the relationship between shear, tension, three-point and four-point bending strengths of Si3N4/Inconel 600 alloy joints. Average values of the shear, tension, and three and four point bending strengths were 178, 233, 321, and 344 MPa, respectively. From the results the strength ratio was 1 : 1.32 : 1.81 : 1.95 in the order of shear, tension, three-point and four-point bend tests. Based on Weibull moduli three-point bend and tension tests showed smaller strength scattering than did the shear and four-point bend tests. As opposed to the behaviour observed for the monolithic ceramic, the average bending strength of Si3N4/Inconel 600 alloy joints decreased as the effective volume of the bend test specimen increased. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The effect of particulate loading on the mechanical behaviour of Al2O3/Al metal-matrix composites

An investigation was made to determine the effect of particulate loading on the elastic, tensile, compressive and fracture properties of Al₂O₃/Al metal-matrix composites fabricated by a pressureless-liquid-metal-infiltration process. The elastic modulus was found to be strongly affected by the reinforcement content, falling within the Hashin-Shtrikman bounds. The Young's modulus of the most highly loaded composite was 170 GPa; compare with 65 GPa for the unreinforced alloy. The strength systematically increased with loading, and the rate of increase also increased with loading. The measured yield strengths were nominally the same in both tension and compression; however, the composites possessed far greater ultimate strengths and strains-to-failure in compression than in tension. At 52 vol % reinforcement, yield strengths in tension and compression of 491 and 440 MPa, respectively, were measured, whereas the associated ultimate strengths were 531 and 1035 MPa, respectively. In tension, the yield and ultimate strengths of the base alloy were found to be 170 and 268 MPa, respectively. The composites displayed a nearly constant fracture toughness for all particulate loadings, with values approaching 20 MPa m^1/2 compared to a value of 29 MPa m^1/2 for the base alloy. Using fractography, the tensile-failure mechanism was characterized as transgranular fracture of the Al₂O₃ particles followed by ductile rupture of the Al-alloy matrix, with no debonding at the matrix/reinforcement interfaces.