The role of applicability in the emergence of the overattribution bias.

Study 1 assessed participants' theories regarding various issues previously used in overattribution bias studies. Results suggest that personality plays an important role in explaining positions on these issues. Studies 2, 3, and 4 indicated that the overattribution bias is contingent on the explanatory applicability of accessible concepts for a particular issue. Study 2 used an issue associated with personality; an overattribution bias emerged only when personality was stressed in the instructions. Study 3 used an issue associated with a sociological theory; this time, an overattribution bias appeared only when a socioeconomic concept was emphasized. Essays were not circulated in Studies 2 and 3, but were in Study 4. Again, the bias appeared only when an applicable (personality) concept was activated. These results, which extend the range of applicability, are discussed within the framework of the social judgability approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivated augmentation and reduction of the overattribution bias.

Three experiments investigated whether the need to have (or avoid) cognitive closure affects observers' tendency to display attributional bias. Results of each experiment indicate that the overattribution bias was magnified under high need for cognitive closure and attenuated under high need to avoid closure. In Exps 1 and 3, the relevant motivational state was manipulated situationally, whereas in Exp 2 an individual-differences measure of the closure motivation was used. These divergent operationalizations yielded convergent results. Furthermore, when in Exp 3 the task consisted of attributions to the situation, high need for closure augmented, and high need to avoid closure reduced, situational rather than dispositional overattributions. The results imply general motivational boundary conditions for inferential biases across judgmental contents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Judgeability in person perception: The confidence of leaders.

Leaders are often expected to evaluate their team workers. In the present study, the authors investigated the hypothesis that leaders express social judgments with more confidence than subordinates. Leadership is assumed to play the role of a metainformational cue leading people to feel entitled to judge. In Study 1, supervisors in a Portuguese firm expressed their evaluations of colleagues and superiors. In Study 2, leadership was attributed on the basis of alleged competence. In Study 3, leadership was explicitly attributed on a random basis. The results of the 3 studies support the hypothesis and are discussed within the framework of social judgeability theory (J. P. Leyens, V. Y. Yzerbyt, & G. Schadron, 1992, 1994). The confidence of leaders may become a norm that is constructed by others. Practical implications are discussed. To the same extent that leadership often resides in the eyes of followers, confidence may originate in the mind of leaders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Decision-making bias in psychotherapy: Effects of hypothesis source and accountability.

Hypothesis-testing strategies used by 72 psychology doctoral students were assessed after these therapists viewed and responded to a videotaped client–therapist interaction. The results of the present study indicate that the therapists who were provided with a plausible hypothesis or who were allowed to develop their own hypothesis were more likely to rely on confirmatory hypothesis-testing strategies than were therapists provided with a less plausible hypothesis about the client. In addition, it was found that the type of decision-making strategy used by the therapists was not influenced by whether they were held highly accountable for their responses or minimally accountable for their responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interplay of memory and judgment processes in effects of aging on hindsight bias.

Hindsight bias is the phenomenon that after people are presented with the correct answer to a question, their judgment regarding their own past answer to this question is biased toward the correct answer. In three experiments, younger and older adults gave numerical responses to general-knowledge questions and later attempted to recall their responses. For some questions, the correct answer was provided during recall (Experiment 1) or before recall (Experiments 2 and 3). Multinomial model-based analyses show age differences in both recollection bias and reconstruction bias when the correct judgment was in working memory during the recall phase. The authors discuss implications for theories of cognitive aging and theories of hindsight bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation and representational processes in adulthood: The effects of social accountability and information relevance.

The role of motivation in determining age differences in social representations was examined. Adults aged 20 to 83 years were given an impression formation task that attempted to manipulate motivation by varying the characteristics of the target and the extent to which participants would be held accountable for their impressions. It was hypothesized that increasing age would be associated with greater selectivity in the use of available cognitive resouces to support the construction of accurate representations. Support for this hypothesis was obtained when trait inferences and recall were examined. Specifically, older adults made more accurate trait inferences and recalled more information when the target was similar in age or they were held accountable for their impressions. In contrast, younger adults demonstrated similar levels of accuracy across conditions. The fact that these effects were observed when cognitive resources was controlled suggests a motivational effect that is independent of age differences in cognitive ability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the bias of information estimates.

Considers the problem of the calculation of the bias of the maximum likelihood information estimate H, based on independent choices among k events. The expectation EH is calculated exactly as a function of the probabilities p1, p2, . . . , pkk. The bias H - EH is approximated by using a convergent expansion for a logarithm and using the 1st 2 terms of a finite expansion for the jth moment of a random variable. The resulting approximation is more generally valid, although less concise and simple, than the classical Miller-Madow approximation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lay persons' sensitivity to statistical information: The case of high perceived applicability.

Six experimental studies were conducted to test the notion that lay persons are insensitive to statistical information when they are in the presence of individuating information allowing judgment by representativeness. Ss were 174 Israeli undergraduates and 259 members of the Israel Defense Forces. Two experiments examined the effects of reliability information on the regressiveness of predictions and on judgmental confidence. Two additional experiments examined the effects on confidence of informational redundancy. The final 2 studies examined Ss' capacity to reason in accordance with the notion of statistical information when its situational applicability is made apparent. On the basis of this and previous evidence, it is concluded that statistical rules seem to be used in accordance with the same rules that govern the use of nonstatistical rules, such as the "representativeness" rule and other rules of various contents. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic bias in counseling: An information processing approach.

Used an illusory correlation paradigm to measure the impact of counselor trainee stereotyping on the processing of information about ethnic groups. 13 Anglo-American and 7 ethnic-minority graduate students in counseling psychology were presented the following information relative to hypothetical persons: stereotypic characteristics, ethnicity, and blood type (a neutral stimulus). Ss were subsequently asked to make judgments about the relationship between ethnicity and stereotypic characteristics as well as between blood type and stereotypic characteristics. Both populations made nearly the same number of errors on the ethnicity items as on blood type items. However, the Anglo-American group made fewer errors on those items for which a stereotypic response was correct than on those items for which the stereotypic response was incorrect, indicating that stereotyping did affect the processing of information relative to ethnicity. This phenomenon was not present for the ethnic-minority group. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The robustness and applicability of speed–accuracy decomposition, a technique for measuring partial information.

Speed–accuracy decomposition (SAD) is a relatively new technique for studying the time course of information processing. It uses information on both the temporal distributions and the accuracies of participants' responses to 2 types of trials to derive an estimate of the amount of partial information available to participants at specific points in processing. As a new technique, its range of applicability and robustness have not yet been fully determined. Simulations are reported here that investigate these issues, with simulated data sets, SAD analysis of same, and comparison of the SAD analysis results to the parameters used to generate the data. In general, SAD appears to be reasonably robust against certain violations of assumptions and a variety of unusual data patterns. It is recommended that future SAD studies be accompanied by simulations based on observed parameters to better understand the data obtained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observer bias in the attitude attribution paradigm: Effect of time and information order.

Exposed 79 undergraduates to an essay taking either a pro or anti stand on the use of minority quotas. They were informed either before or after reading the essay that the writer had or had not been permitted to choose which side of the issue to support. Ss returned for a 2nd session 1 wk after the 1st, and their attributions of true attitude to the essayist were again measured. Results replicate previous attitude attribution findings, but the tendency to attribute an essay-consistent attitude when the essay was written under high constraint was much greater when the constraint information appeared after exposure to the essay. There was no hint of a sleeper effect and, therefore, no evidence that constraint cues were discounted over time. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Research, practice, and accountability.

Argues that traditional research serves academic rather than clinical clientele, based on the view that if a random sample of psychologist practitioners were asked to name authors of research articles which most influenced their practice, the majority of authors named would be nonpsychologists. To improve this situation, it is suggested that the inadequate scientist-professional model be dispensed with and that research in applied clinical settings be encouraged. Four specific recommendations to facilitate such change are proposed: (a) that psychology students not be automatically required to take experimental psychology and statistics; (b) that clinical theses be actively encouraged; (c) that the American Psychological Association (APA) establish a journal for intensive, primarily qualitative investigation; and (d) that established organizations such as APA sanction and support this broadened research orientation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of improper sets of information on judgment: How irrelevant information can bias judged probability.

This article introduces 2 new sources of bias in probability judgment, discrimination failure and inhibition failure, which are conceptualized as arising from an interaction between error prone memory processes and a support theory like comparison process. Both sources of bias stem from the influence of irrelevant information on participants' probability judgments, but they postulate different mechanisms for how irrelevant information affects judgment. The authors used an adaptation of the proactive interference (PI) and release from PI paradigm to test the effect of irrelevant information on judgment. The results of 2 experiments support the discrimination failure account of the effect of PI on probability judgment. In addition, the authors show that 2 commonly used measures of judgment accuracy, absolute and relative accuracy, can be dissociated. The results have broad implications for theories of judgment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Demonstrations of implicit anti-fat bias: The impact of providing causal information and evoking empathy.

Three studies investigated implicit biases, and their modifiability, against overweight persons. In Study 1 (N=144), the authors demonstrated strong implicit anti-fat attitudes and stereotypes using the Implicit Association Test, despite no explicit anti-fat bias. When participants were informed that obesity is caused predominantly by overeating and lack of exercise, higher implicit bias relative to controls was produced; informing participants that obesity is mainly due to genetic factors did not result in lower bias. In Studies 2A (N=90) and 2B (N=63), participants read stories of discrimination against obese persons to evoke empathy. This did not lead to lower bias compared with controls but did produce diminished implicit bias among overweight participants, suggesting an in-group bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interplay of meaning, sound, and syntax in sentence production.

A discussion of modularity in language production processes, with special emphasis on processes for retrieving words and building syntactic structures for a to-be-uttered sentence, is presented. The authors' 1st goal was to assess the extent to which information processing is encapsulated between different processing stages. In particular, they assessed whether the input from one processing stage to the next is minimal and whether the flow of information in the system is strictly unidirectional. On the basis of the reviewed evidence, they conclude that both assumptions have to be revised. Their 2nd goal was to propose an alternative framework that does not assume strict encapsulation but that maintains multiple levels of integration for production. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale--Fourth Edition: Observations, comments and concerns.

Examines problems encountered using the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale—4th Edition, by R. L. Thorndike et al (1986), with preschoolers. General administration problems include (1) problems with basic mastery of administration due to the expansion of the materials and procedures and (2) problems in the determination of basal and ceiling levels on subtests in which item type changes have occurred. Modifications are suggested for the record booklet and for the Vocabulary, Quantitative, Pattern Analysis, and Absurdities subtests. Problems with interpretation involve (1) the interpretation of Quantitative Reasoning and Short-Term Memory Area scores for 2–6 yr olds and (2) the limited data provided by the technical manual to enable interpretation of findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Item difficulty and content bias on the WAIS-R information subtest.

252 15–77 yr old patients referred for psychological or neuropsychological assessment were administered the WAIS-R. Of the 4 new items in the Information subtest, 2 were found to be disproportionately difficult in terms of proportions of Ss who passed the item. In addition, 3 of the 4 items that are routinely "Canadianized" were also found to be disproportionately difficult. It is suggested that a normative study to establish the hierarchy of difficulty for a Canadian population is needed. (French abstract) (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self concept: The interplay of theory and methods.

Examined (a) the assumptions of a multifaceted, hierarchical construct, self-concept, with increasing stability toward the apex that can be differentiated from academic achievement; (b) the causal predominance of self-concept and achievement; and (c) how the analysis of covariance structures can simultaneously examine measurement, structural, and theoretical concerns. With 99 junior high school Ss and multiple indicators of subject-specific area and general self-concept (Way I Feel About Myself Scale, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, and Michigan Self-Concept of Ability Scale), support was found for a multifaceted, hierarchical interpretation. Facets of the construct could be distinguished from achievement; self-concept appeared to be causally predominant over achievement. Data did not support the assumptions that facets of self-concept become increasingly stable toward the apex of the hierarchy or that changes in self-concept operate from the base to the apex. (1 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

School psychologists as consultants: Issues in training, practice, and accountability.

From contemporary research and theory in mental health consultation, implications are drawn for the development of an indirect service role for school psychologists. Attention is given to the need for training school psychologists in consultation skills, to the obstacles encountered in the initiation of consultative relationships, and to methods for assessing efficiency and effectiveness of a variety of consultative activities. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The likelihood of violent behaviour: Predictions, postdictions, and hindsight bias.

Studied the effects of variations in base rate (BR) information and temporal context on predictions of violence and hindsight bias (HB). 270 undergraduates estimated the likelihood of violent offenders committing another violent offense based upon fictitious case history information. Ss were given 1 of 2 population BRs of the likelihood of reoffending (30% or 70%) and a recidivism estimation question that was phrased either predictively, predictively with a given outcome of either recidivism or no recidivism, or postdictively. Although different offenders were perceived as differentially likely to reoffend, estimated likelihood of recidivism was affected by neither BR nor temporal phrasing of the estimation task. A 2nd study of 182 undergraduates, using shorter case histories, also found no BR effect. HB effects were weak and inconsistent in both studies. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)