Social disadvantage and the self-regulatory function of justice beliefs.

Five studies support the hypothesis that beliefs in societal fairness offer a self-regulatory benefit for members of socially disadvantaged groups. Specifically, members of disadvantaged groups are more likely than members of advantaged groups to calibrate their pursuit of long-term goals to their beliefs about societal fairness. In Study 1, low socioeconomic status (SES) undergraduate students who believed more strongly in societal fairness showed greater intentions to persist in the face of poor performance on a midterm examination. In Study 2, low SES participants who believed more strongly in fairness reported more willingness to invest time and effort to achieve desirable career outcomes. In Study 3, ethnic minority participants exposed to a manipulation suggesting that fairness conditions in their country were improving reported more willingness to invest resources in pursuit of long-term goals, relative to ethnic minority participants in a control condition. Study 4 replicated Study 3 using an implicit priming procedure, demonstrating that perceptions of the personal relevance of societal fairness mediate these effects. Across these 4 studies, no link between fairness beliefs and self-regulation emerged for members of advantaged (high SES, ethnic majority) groups. Study 5 contributed evidence from the World Values Survey and a representative sample (Inglehart, Basa?ez, Diez-Medrano, Halman, & Luijkx, 2004). Respondents reported more motivation to work hard to the extent that they believed that rewards were distributed fairly; this effect emerged more strongly for members of lower SES groups than for members of higher SES groups, as indicated by both self-identified social class and ethnicity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implicit self-theories of shyness.

Three studies examined implicit self-theories in relation to shy people's goals, responses, and consequences within social situations. Shy incremental theorists were more likely than shy entity theorists to view social situations as a learning opportunity and to approach social settings (Study 1). Shy incremental theorists were less likely to use strategies aimed at avoiding social interaction (Studies 2 and 3) and suffered fewer negative consequences of their shyness (Study 3). These findings generalized across both hypothetical and actual social situations as well as both self-reports and observer reports and could not be attributed to individual differences in level of shyness. Together, these studies indicate that implicit self-theories of shyness are important for understanding individual differences among shy people and suggest new avenues for implicit self-theories research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Positive Reactions to Working in Groups in a Study of Group and Individual Goal Decision Making.

The authors explored group members' positive reactions to working in groups that performed a card-sorting task for which they set goals. They also tested predictions regarding observed differences between the goal decisions of groups and individuals for their own and others' performance. Consistent with predictions, group members had more goal commitment, more positive attitudes toward goal attainment, and greater satisfaction with their performance than individuals. Moreover, groups chose goals that were less difficult than the goals of individuals both for their own and for others' performance. The ways in which group decision processes and other factors may account for differences in group and individual goal decisions are considered. In addition, the social-emotional and task-related benefits members perceive of working in their groups are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal intervention in toddler peer conflict: The socialization of principles of justice.

The focus of this research was mothers' interventions in object conflicts between toddler peers. Maternal consistency in endorsing principles of ownership and possession was evaluated. 32 20- or 30-mo-old children were observed playing with same-aged, same-sex peers for 18 40-min sessions. Mothers of both children were present and free to respond to their children but were asked not to organize or direct the children's play. We found that mothers frequently intervened and that they overwhelmingly favored the other child; however, mothers of boys supported their own children more than mothers of girls. Additionally, mothers were not consistent in endorsing rights of either ownership or possession and thus did not provide coherent information for the children's acquisition of principles of entitlement. Rather, mothers' interventions appeared to be aimed at restoring harmony between the children by urging their own children to yield to their peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of unemployment on health: a review of the evidence

OBJECTIVE: To review the scientific evidence supporting an association between unemployment and adverse health outcomes and to assess the evidence on the basis of the epidemiologic criteria for causation. DATA SOURCES: MEDLINE was searched for all relevant articles with the use of the MeSH terms "unemployment," "employment," "job loss," "economy" and a range of mortality and morbidity outcomes. A secondary search was conducted for references from the primary search articles, review articles or published commentaries. Data and definitions of unemployment were drawn from Statistics Canada publications. STUDY SELECTION: Selection focused on articles published in the 1980s and 1990s. English-language reports of aggregate-level research (involving an entire population), such as time-series analyses, and studies of individual subjects, such as cross-sectional, case-control or cohort studies, were reviewed. In total, the authors reviewed 46 articles that described original studies. DATA EXTRACTION: Information was sought on the association (if any) between unemployment and health outcomes such as mortality rates, specific causes of death, incidence of physical and mental disorders and the use of health care services. Information was extracted on the nature of the association (positive or negative), measures of association (relative risk, odds ratio or standardized mortality ratio), and the direction of causation (whether unemployment caused ill health or vice versa). DATA SYNTHESIS: Most aggregate-level studies reported a positive association between national unemployment rates and rates of overall mortality and mortality due to cardiovascular disease and suicide. However, the relation between unemployment rates and motor-vehicle fatality rates may be inverse. Large, census-based cohort studies showed higher rates of overall mortality, death due to cardiovascular disease and suicide among unemployed men and women than among either employed people or the general population. Workers laid off because of factory closure have reported more symptoms and illnesses than employed people; some of these reports have been validated objectively. Unemployed people may be more likely than employed people to visit physicians, take medications or be admitted to general hospitals. A possible association between unemployment and rates of admission to psychiatric hospitals is complicated by other institutional and environmental factors. CONCLUSIONS: Evaluated on an epidemiologic basis, the evidence suggests a strong, positive association between unemployment and many adverse health outcomes. Whether unemployment causes these adverse outcomes is less straightforward, however, because there are likely many mediating and confounding factors, which may be social, economic or clinical. Many authors have suggested mechanisms of causation, but further research is needed to test these hypotheses.     

Early conduct problems and later life opportunities

Associations between the extent of conduct problems at age 8 years and later life opportunity outcomes at age 18 years were examined in a birth cohort of New Zealand children studied prospectively to age 18 years. Conduct problems at age 8 were assessed using a combination of parent and teacher reports of conduct disordered and oppositional behaviours. Two measures of life opportunities were assessed at age 18: (a) whether the young person had left school by age 18 without educational qualifications; (b) whether the young person had experienced a period of unemployment of 3 months or longer following school leaving. The analysis suggested the following conclusions: (1) There were clear and significant (p < .0001) tendencies for increasing levels of conduct problems at age 8 to be associated with increasing risks of leaving school without qualifications and of unemployment by age 18. (2) A substantial component of these associations was explained by a series of confounding social, family, and individual factors (notably child intelligence, early attentional problems, and family sociodemographic disadvantage) that were associated with both early conduct problems and later life opportunities. (3) Further analysis suggested that linkages between early conduct problems and later educational underattainment and unemployment (after adjustment for confounders) were mediated by a series of adolescent behavioural processes including patterns of peer affiliations, substance use, truancy, and problems with school authority.     

Covariational influences on goal-based explanation: An integrative model.

Covariational and goal-based approaches to social attribution have been treated as competitive or incommensurable. This article integrates key aspects of each approach. Four studies examined preferences for motivating factors (or goals) and enabling factors (or preconditions) as explanations of intentional actions. The studies manipulated (Studies 1–3) and measured (Study 4) the perceived covariation of these goal-based causes with target actions. Causes that covaried with actions were preferred explanations, in contrast with the goal-based view that motivating factors are generally preferred to enabling factors. Combining goal-based beliefs and covariational reasoning resolves problems faced by each individual approach and generates a novel explanatory typology that combines strengths of goal-based and covariational typologies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Control processes before and after passing a developmental deadline: Activation and deactivation of intimate relationship goals.

This study addressed activation and deactivation of partnership goals in a sample of 116 recently separated or committed individuals in young adulthood and late midlife. Across adulthood, the opportunities for forming a partnership decrease dramatically. The authors argue that such deteriorating opportunity structures (developmental deadlines) call for a shift from goal realization efforts to goal disengagement. The findings showed that younger as compared with older separated persons more frequently reported partnership goals, expressed greater control striving for partnership realization, and responded more to positive than to negative information about partnerships. Separated persons in late midlife disengaged from partnership goals and redirected their resources to other social domains. A longitudinal follow-up at 15 months showed that age differences in control processes were related to improvement in emotional well-being of separated individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depressive reactions and unemployment.

Investigated correlates of situation-specific depressive affect associated with unemployment and correlates of more general depressive symptoms assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) for 116 15–32 yr old unemployed Ss. Consistent with a frustrated work-motivation pattern, depressive affect was associated with concern about being unemployed and with stronger endorsement of external causes of unemployment. Consistent with a self-blame view of depression, BDI scores were related to stronger endorsement of internal causes for unemployment, to low self-esteem, and to feelings of helplessness. Stronger endorsement of internal causes was found among those Ss with a longer history of unemployment. Multiple regression analyses showed, however, that the attributional variables accounted for a relatively low proportion of the variance in the depression measures. Results question the adequacy of attributional accounts of depression. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stigma and intimacy in same-sex relationships: A narrative approach.

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals in romantic relationships experience stigma, prejudice, and discrimination stemming from widespread social devaluation of same-sex relationships. Research on same-sex couples has demonstrated a negative association between experiences of stigma and relationship quality. However, critical questions remain unanswered regarding how experiences of stigma become more or less meaningful within the context of same-sex relationships. This paper presents a study of the stories that a purposive sample of 99 individuals in same-sex relationships wrote about their relational high points, low points, decisions, and goals, as well as their experiences of stigma directly related to their relationships. Narrative analysis of these stories revealed that participants utilized several psychological strategies for making meaning of their experiences of stigma within the context of their relationships. Some participants framed stigma as having a negative impact on their relationships, while others framed stigma as relevant, but external to their lives. Some participants saw stigma as providing an opportunity to (re)define notions of commitment and relational legitimacy. Additionally, many participants framed stigma as bringing them closer to their partners and strengthening the bond within their relationships. The results of this study illuminate the psychological strategies individuals in same-sex couples use to make meaning of, cope with, and overcome societal devaluation thereby furthering understandings of the association between stigma and intimacy within marginalized relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Relational Perspective on Women and Power.

This article focuses on the fact that women and men have equal but different needs for power. Integrating a psychoanalytic relational approach with feminist theory and social psychology, the author explains gender differences and societal influences on the pursuit of power. Social psychology research indicates that women are more likely to pursue power in ways that help others, whereas men are more likely to pursue their own individual ambitions. However, both genders become more nurturing in their expressions of power as they age. The presence of siblings in early life and having children as adults are more likely to produce an individual who demonstrates prosocial power. Young women today appear to be less conflicted about pursuing power in the world than the previous generation, but they are still ambivalent when it comes to making their way in the world. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Work ability of young adults

This paper reviews the themes related to work ability of young adults. Premature working discapacity causes significant economical and social costs in Finland compared to other Nordic countries and has for that reason been studied most intensively there. Work ability is an interaction of social, environmental and individual factors such as physical fitness, coping skills, social support behaviour and health behaviour. Environmental factors influencing work ability can be concrete, like physical and chemical exposures or more abstract like unemployment. The work ability of ageing people has been studied intensively, while work ability of young adults has not been properly evaluated so far. The worsened economic situation in Finland has meant an excessive work load for those who still have work. At the same time the risk of permanent unemployment is increasing. This polarizationing affects especially the young because they may fail to enter the working life. Also factors related to childhood may affect and even determine work ability in adulthood.     

Unemployment, job satisfaction, and employee turnover: A meta-analytic test of the Muchinsky model.

We conducted a meta-analysis to determine the relation between satisfaction–turnover correlations across studies and unemployment rates at the time those studies were conducted. On the basis of theoretical work by Muchinsky and Morrow (1980), we hypothesized that low relations would be found in studies conducted during times of high unemployment and limited employment opportunity, and high relations would be found in studies conducted during times of low unemployment and expanded opportunity. Results supported the hypothesis; correlations were found that ranged from –.18 to –.52 between unemployment rates and the magnitude of satisfaction–turnover relations across studies. A similar analysis was conducted for the relation between intention to quit and turnover. The correlations between the intention–turnover relation and unemployment were similar in magnitude to the corresponding satisfaction correlations, indicating that the behavioral-intention–turnover relation is also moderated by economic alternatives. Severe methodological problems with a similar study, which indicated the opposite results (Shikiar & Freudenberg, 1982), are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prototype matching: A strategy for social decision making.

116 college students responded to a series of questionnaires while they were in the process of selecting housing from a choice of 7 available options for the coming fall. Questionnaires concerned their self-concepts, housing prototypes, preferences in housing, and goals in housing selection. Ss also completed a self-monitoring scale. Analyses of the self-to-prototype matching strategy suggest that most Ss preferred the type of housing for which their prototype of the "representative" resident most closely matches their self-perceptions. Individual differences in attention to self-fit in situations were observed. Among Ss who reported that they had interpersonal goals in the housing selection task, those who reported that many personality characteristics (both positive and negative) were untrue of self were more systematic in their use of the self-to-prototype matching rule; this was also true of low self-monitors. Neither pattern of individual differences were obtained for Ss with practical goals in the housing decision. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Action-oriented representations of implicit personality theories.

120 female undergraduates rated significant persons in their lives on repertory test dimensions. The 5 independent variables were priming (for family life vs, peer life vs, no priming), instrumentality of the psychological dimensions to the actors' goals from family vs peer life, consistency of knowledge about family and peer actors' goals, types of rated persons, and concentration on the persons before ratings. Ratings on dimensions instrumental to family goals were more variable after priming for family life. In contrast, the dimensions instrumental to peer goals were more variable, after priming for peer life. These relations were more marked after concentration, especially among Ss with high consistency of knowledge about family or peer actors' goals. Results support the hypotheses that an individual may have alternative systems of psychological knowledge that are organized in the form of action-oriented representations and in which categories of actors' goals and psychological conditions of achieving the goals play a central role. Ratings in the no-priming conditions corresponded well to the findings of earlier studies on implicit personality theories. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Urban small area variation in adolescents' health behaviour

Our previous study indicated that region plays a relatively small role in adolescents' health behaviour. Here, the regional patterning of health behaviour is studied further by shifting the focus to small areas. First, we test whether small area socioeconomic, demographic and housing characteristics correlate with health behaviour. The analysis then turns to the relationship between these characteristics and their individual level correlates. We wish to ascertain if behaviour is related to small area characteristics similarly for both genders and for adolescents' socioeconomic characteristics. The Adolescent Health and Lifestyle Survey data from 1989-1995 (16- and 18-year-olds, n = 1048, response rate 71%) were linked with data describing 33 subareas of Helsinki, the capital of Finland. Smoking, alcohol use, abstention from dietary fat and physical activity were used as lifestyle indicators. Gender apparently influences the extent to which the area plays a role. Logistic regression demonstrated that prolonged unemployment predicted low prevalence of abstention from dietary fat (traditional dietary patterns) among girls and heavy drinking among boys. High total rate of unemployment predicted lower physical activity among girls. Also owner-occupied housing correlated positively with girls' physical activity. Although the individual level socioeconomic characteristics were not as strongly related to health behaviour as the small area factors, a low level of education predicted smoking and alcohol use and, among girls, decreased physical activity. We conclude that small area characteristics, especially the level of unemployment of the area, may be even more strongly related to health behaviour than individual socioeconomic characteristics.     

Responding to membership in a disadvantaged group: From acceptance to collective protest.

The question addressed is, when do disadvantaged-group members accept their situation, take individual action, or attempt to instigate collective action? Ss attempted to move from a low-status group into an advantaged, high-status group and were asked to respond to their subsequent rejection. Ss who believed that the high-status group was open to members of their group endorsed acceptance and individual actions. When access to the high-status group was restricted, even to the point of being almost closed (tokenism), Ss still preferred individual action. Disruptive forms of collective action were only favored by Ss who were told that the high-status group was completely closed to members of their group. Ss who believed they were near to gaining entry into the high-status group favored individual protest, while Ss distant from entry were more likely to accept their position. The theoretical and societal implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the psycholinguistics of sarcasm.

Examined comprehension and memory for sarcastic statements in conversation in 6 experiments with 256 undergraduates. Data from 3 reading-time studies indicate that Ss did not need to first process the literal meanings of sarcastic expressions, such as "You're a fine friend" (meaning "You're a bad friend"), before deriving their nonliteral, sarcastic-interpretations. Ss also comprehended instances of sarcasm based on an explicit echoic mention of some belief, societal norm, or previously stated opinion faster than they did instances in which the echo was only implicit. Three additional experiments examining memory for sarcasm showed that sarcasm was remembered much better than literal uses of the same expressions of nonsarcastic equivalents. Ss recalled sarcasm that explicitly echoed a previously mentioned belief or societal norm more often than they remembered sarcasm that did not involve some explicit echo. Overall results demonstrate that ease of processing and memory for sarcastic utterances depends crucially on how explicitly a speaker's statement echoes either the addressee or some other source's putative beliefs, opinions, or previous statement. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal and adolescent ratings of psychopathology in young offender and non-clinical males.

Compared maternal and youth ratings of the youths' adjustment using the Child Behavior Checklist and Youth Self-Report with 50 young offenders and 51 non-clinical males (aged 12–16 yrs). While delinquent youths were in the clinical range only on the delinquent behavior subscale, maternal ratings were in the clinical range on most subscales. By contrast, maternal and youth reports in controls showed comparable ratings on Internalizing scales, with normal adolescents endorsing significantly more Externalizing behavior problems than their mothers. Maternal and youth ratings in the controls were in the normal range on all scales. Possible causes of these differences between young offenders' and their mothers' reporting of symptoms are discussed, and implications of these findings for forensic assessment of adolescents are presented. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?

It has been widely asserted that low self-esteem causes violence, but laboratory evidence is lacking, and some contrary observations have characterized aggressors as having favorable self-opinions. In 2 studies, both simple self-esteem and narcissism were measured, and then individual participants were given an opportunity to aggress against someone who had insulted them or praised them or against an innocent third person. Self-esteem proved irrelevant to aggression. The combination of narcissism and insult led to exceptionally high levels of aggression toward the source of the insult. Neither form of self-regard affected displaced aggression, which was low in general. These findings contradict the popular view that low self-esteem causes aggression and point instead toward threatened egotism as an important cause. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)