Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation.

Examines the classroom learning environment in relation to achievement goal theory of motivation. Classroom structures are described in terms of how they make different types of achievement goals salient and as a consequence elicit qualitatively different patterns of motivation. Task, evaluation and recognition, and authority dimensions of classrooms are presented as examples of structures that can influence children's orientation toward different achievement goals. Central to the thesis of this article is a perspective that argues for an identification of classroom structures that can contribute to a mastery orientation, a systematic analysis of these structures, and a determination of how these structures relate to each other. The ways in which interventions must address the independency among these structures are discussed in terms of how they influence student motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Students' goal orientations and cognitive engagement in classroom activities.

We used structural equation analysis to test the validity of a goal mediational model for conceptualizing the influence of individual and situational variables on students' cognitive engagement in science activities. Fifth- and sixth-grade students (N?=?275) from 10 classrooms completed a set of questionnaires designed to assess their goal orientations and their use of high-level or effort-minimizing learning strategies while completing six different science activities. Results indicate that students who placed greater emphasis on task-mastery goals reported more active cognitive engagement. In contrast, students oriented toward gaining social recognition, pleasing the teacher, or avoiding work reported a lower level of cognitive engagement. The relative strength of these goals was related to differences in students' intrinsic motivation and attitudes toward science. Our analyses also suggested that these variables exerted a greater influence in small-group than in whole-class activities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introduction to the special section on motivation and efficacy.

This article summarizes the research articles in this special section on motivation and efficacy. These articles stress the idea that motivation and efficacy are interacting mechanisms in views of educational achievement that include learner, social, and instructional variables. An initial sense of efficacy for performing well can motivate learners to act in ways that enhance performance. As students perceive their progress, their sense of efficacy is validated, which sustains motivation. The articles have been clustered around four themes: attributions, learning strategies, learner characteristics, and teacher efficacy. A suggested future research agenda includes models of achievement, student behaviors, and teaching processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A social-cognitive-behavioral model of academic predictors of adolescents' life satisfaction.

The current study provided a comprehensive examination of factors related to school that are implicated in students' life satisfaction. A theoretical model is put forth that hypothesizes that behavior experiences (classroom conduct, school grades) and social experiences (perceived school climate) at school influence students' cognitions relative to their global academic beliefs and attitudes toward their current school. These cognitive contexts of schooling are hypothesized to constitute students' judgments of their satisfaction with school, an important predictor of global life satisfaction. Self-report measures assessing adolescents' perceptions of these constructs were administered to a pilot sample of 321 high school students in a southeastern city. Simultaneous regression and correlational analyses clarified which aspects of school climate and other school-related factors were significantly associated with students' life satisfaction. Results of a revised path model provided preliminary support for the model. Findings support the relevance of considering students' quality of life in addition to the current focus on monitoring academic achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal goals and emotional well-being: the moderating role of motive dispositions

Two studies examined the importance of motive dispositions in determining the extent to which the pursuit of personal goals accounts for interindividual differences in emotional well-being. Within the domains of agency and communion, motives were assessed with a picture-story test, whereas self-report measures were used to assess goal attributes. Study 1 found that progress toward motive-congruent goals, in contrast to progress toward motive-incongruent goals, accounted for students' daily experiences of emotional well-being. Study 2 found that the combination of high commitment to and high attainability of motive-congruent goals predicted an increase in students' emotional well-being over 1 semester. In contrast, high commitment to motive-incongruent goals predicted a decline in emotional well-being. Results are discussed with reference to a 2-system approach to human motivation.     

Reaching one's personal goals: A motivational perspective focused on autonomy.

The present article reviews recent research on motivational factors that influence the success of personal goals. Although achieving progress on personal goals is made difficult by limitations in self-regulatory strength, it is argued that individuals who feel autonomous regarding their goals will benefit in distinct ways. The issue of autonomy concerns whether a goal reflects an individual's interests and personal values versus whether it is adopted because of social pressures or expectations of what an individual "should do." Recent research indicates that autonomous goal motivation can lead directly to greater goal progress by allowing individuals to exert more effort, experience less conflict, and feel a greater sense of readiness to change their behaviour. It also allows individuals to make better use of implementation plans specifying how, when, and where they will enact goal-directed behaviours. Support from other people (health care providers, etc.) can play a vital role in facilitating goal pursuits, especially when such support enhances feelings of autonomy. Successful goal progress results in enhanced positive affect and reduced negative affect, particularly if the goal pursuits involved satisfaction of intrinsic psychological needs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How youth get engaged: Grounded-theory research on motivational development in organized youth programs.

For youth to benefit from many of the developmental opportunities provided by organized programs, they need to not only attend but become psychologically engaged in program activities. This research was aimed at formulating empirically based grounded theory on the processes through which this engagement develops. Longitudinal interviews were conducted with 100 ethnically diverse youth (ages 14–21) in 10 urban and rural arts and leadership programs. Qualitative analysis focused on narrative accounts from the 44 youth who reported experiencing a positive turning point in their motivation or engagement. For 38 of these youth, this change process involved forming a personal connection. Similar to processes suggested by self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000), forming a personal connection involved youth's progressive integration of personal goals with the goals of program activities. Youth reported developing a connection to 3 personal goals that linked the self with the activity: learning for the future, developing competence, and pursuing a purpose. The role of purpose for many youth suggests that motivational change can be driven by goals that transcend self-needs. These findings suggest that youth need not enter programs intrinsically engaged—motivation can be fostered—and that programs should be creative in helping youth explore ways to form authentic connections to program activities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory and reality.

Although it may be disconcerting to contemplate, true and false memories arise in the same way. Memories are attributions that we make about our mental experiences based on their subjective qualities, our prior knowledge and beliefs, our motives and goals, and the social context. This article describes an approach to studying the nature of these mental experiences and the constructive encoding, revival, and evaluative processes involved (the source monitoring framework). Cognitive behavioral studies using both objective (e.g., recognition, source memory) and subjective (e.g., ratings of memory characteristics) measures and neuroimaging findings are helping to clarify the complex relation between memory and reality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-determination and persistence in a real-life setting: Toward a motivational model of high school dropout.

The purpose of this study was to propose and test a motivational model of high school dropout. The model posits that teachers, parents, and the school administration's behaviors toward students influence students' perceptions of competence and autonomy. The less autonomy supportive the social agents' behaviors are, the less positive are students' perceptions of competence and autonomy. In turn, the less positive students' perceptions are, the lower their levels of self-determined school motivation are. Finally, low levels of self-determined motivation lead students to develop intentions to drop out of high school, which are later implemented, leading to actual dropout behavior This model was tested with high school students (N?=?4,537) by means of a prospective design. Results from analyses of variance and a structural equation modeling analysis (with LISREL) were found to support the model for all participants and for each gender separately. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Putting self psychology to good use: When social and clinical psychologists unite.

The subareas of psychology often fail to share with one another their research and theorizing. This article attempts to redress this lack of communication as it pertains to social psychological theorizing and research on self-motives. The article starts with a review of the social psychological literature surrounding people's needs for positivity and verification, followed by a discussion of how to integrate these seemingly incompatible literatures. The article then highlights how these self-motives likely play a role in the psychotherapy enterprise and suggests ways in which therapists might use this information. By bridging the gap between the social and clinical literatures in this way, the authors anticipate that both fields will progress more productively toward their respective goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does a new learning environment come up to students' expectations? A longitudinal study.

School transitions and educational innovations confront students with changes in their learning environment. Though expectations are known to influence perceptions and motivation, which, in turn, influence the effectiveness of any situation, students' expectations for a new learning environment have received little attention. This longitudinal survey, conducted with 1,335 high school students (average age, 15 years), studied students' expectations and subsequent perceptions of 5 characteristics of a new environment (fascinating content, productive learning, student autonomy, interaction, and clarity of goals) and the students' (prospective) dissatisfaction. Results showed that expectations were positively related to later perceptions. Also, high prospective dissatisfaction was related to higher actual dissatisfaction with the environment later on. Investigating expectations and prospective dissatisfaction in relation to student characteristics (i.e., motivational orientations; conceptions of learning; strategies for regulation, information processing, and affective processing) show that motivational problems and fear of failure were risk factors for educational innovations. Furthermore, students' disappointment with the new environment was related to undesirable changes in student characteristics, such as increased fear of failure. The findings stress the importance of preparing students for curricular changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Beyond social cognitions.

Reviews the book, Social motivation: Understanding children's school adjustment edited by J. Juvonen and K. R. Wentzel (see record 1997-97006-000). In general, research has paid little attention to the possibility that children's social motivation is intertwined with their academic motivation. Affiliation and achievement have been regarded as two distinct motivations. This book is an attempt to redress this imbalance and misconception. The book argues that children's social and academic development are intertwined. Contributors to the book discuss specific ways in which children are motivated to achieve socially and academically at school. The book's social motivation perspective has successfully extended the reader's attention from intrapsychological processes to interpersonal relationships and social concerns as motivators of behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acceptance is in the eye of the beholder: Self-esteem and motivated perceptions of acceptance from the opposite sex.

Social risk elicits self-esteem differences in signature social motivations and behaviors during the relationship-initiation process. In particular, the present research tested the hypothesis that lower self-esteem individuals' (LSEs) motivation to avoid rejection leads them to self-protectively underestimate acceptance from potential romantic partners, whereas higher self-esteem individuals' (HSEs) motivation to promote new relationships leads them to overestimate acceptance. The results of 5 experiments supported these predictions. Social risk increased activation of avoidance goals for LSEs on a word-recall task but increased activation of approach goals for HSEs, as evidenced by their increased use of likeable behaviors. Consistent with these patterns of goal activation, even though actual acceptance cues were held constant across all participants, social risk decreased the amount of acceptance that LSEs perceived from their interaction partner but increased the amount of acceptance that HSEs perceived from their interaction partner. It is important to note that such self-esteem differences in avoidance goals, approach behaviors, and perceptions of acceptance were completely eliminated when social risk was removed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes of creatine kinase gene expression in rat heart post-myocardial infarction

This article analyzes social aspects in the incorporation of new information and communications technologies in public health academic institutions. To demarcate the study of these processes and demonstrate the close relationship between their social and technical aspects, the study employs concepts pertaining to "intellectual technologies" and a "critical theory of technology". Theoretical and methodological elements are identified to approach the implementation dynamics of electronic networks in public health institutions, through a discourse analysis of their social actors and the various meanings they attribute to such dynamics Considering discourse as an expression of the relations created during these implementation dynamics, the study seeks a proposal for the ways by which these relations might influence the social and technical dimensions of digital networks.     

Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation.

Two experiments investigated the effects of achievement goals on intrinsic motivation for an enjoyable pinball game. Exp 1 manipulated Ss' performance (demonstrating ability) and mastery (developing one's skills) achievement goals and contrasted them with a neutral control group. Exp 2 replicated Exp 1 and extended it by additionally providing (or not) Ss with positive, goal-relevant feedback. Results were consistent across studies, indicating that individual differences in achievement orientation moderated the influence of achievement goals on intrinsic motivation. Specifically, performance goals enhanced intrinsic motivation for achievement-oriented individuals, whereas mastery goals enhanced interest for those low in achievement orientation. The results were discussed in the context of J. M. Harackiewicz and C. Sansone's (1991) model of intrinsic motivation processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationships among students' future-oriented goals and subgoals, perceived task instrumentality, and task-oriented self-regulation strategies in an academic environment.

The authors performed path analysis, followed by a bootstrap procedure, to test the predictions of a model explaining the relationships among students' distal future goals (both extrinsic and intrinsic), their adoption of a middle-range subgoal, their perceptions of task instrumentality, and their proximal task-oriented self-regulation strategies. The model was based on R. B. Miller and S. J. Brickman's (2004) conceptualization of future-oriented motivation and self-regulation, which draws primarily from social-cognitive and self-determination theories. Participants were 421 college students who completed a questionnaire that included scales measuring the 5 variables of interest. Data supported the model, suggesting that students' distal future goals (intrinsic future goals in particular) may be related to their middle-range college graduation subgoal, to their perceptions of task instrumentality, and to their adoption of proximal task-oriented self-regulation strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pygmalion revisited: New evidence for student expectancy effects in the classroom.

We conducted a field experiment to test the idea that students' expectations regarding their teacher's competence would influence their classroom behavior and academic achievement. At the end of a 3-week teaching unit, students in two high school classes who had been given an initial positive expectancy about their teacher's ability and motivation engaged in more appropriate and less inappropriate nonverbal behavior and received significantly higher final grades on the unit than did their peers in two no-expectation control classes. We speculate about both the direct (student-mediated) and indirect (teacher-mediated) processes by which students' expectations came to affect their academic outcomes. We also discuss the importance of group-level expectancies and some ethical issues in student expectancy research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental behaviors and adolescents' achievement goals at the beginning of middle school: Emotional problems as potential mediators.

Recent literature on the determinants of academic motivation has shown that parenting and emotions are central elements in understanding students' achievement goals. The authors of this study set out to examine the predictive relationship between parental behaviors during the last year of elementary school and adolescents' achievement goals at the end of their first year of middle school. Manifestations of anxiety and depression in Grade 6 were examined as explanatory mechanisms for this relationship. A total of 498 early adolescents participated in the study. The results of structural equation modeling analyses demonstrated that parental involvement predicted mastery goals, whereas parental control predicted performance goals among these adolescents. This relationship was mediated by the adolescents' symptoms of anxiety. These results underscore the need for educators and clinicians to consider parental behaviors and emotional problems among elementary school students when seeking to understand the behaviors and learning strategies adopted by these students in middle school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clarifying Achievement Goals and Their Impact.

The study of achievement goals has illuminated basic motivational processes, though controversy surrounds their nature and impact. In 5 studies, including a longitudinal study in a difficult premed course, the authors show that the impact of learning and performance goals depends on how they are operationalized. Active learning goals predicted active coping, sustained motivation, and higher achievement in the face of challenge. Among performance goals, ability-linked goals predicted withdrawal and ment poorer performance in the face of challenge (but provided a "boost" to performance when students met with success); normative goals did not predict decrements in motivation or performance; and outcome goals (wanting a good grade) were in fact equally related to learning goals and ability goals. Ways in which the findings address discrepancies in the literature are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)