Teachers' and students' beliefs about punishment.

360 1st, 3rd and 5th graders and their 16 teachers from 3 school systems were interviewed in the fall and spring of the same school year to assess the developing relationship between teachers' and students' beliefs about punishment. Older children were less punitive than younger children. Teachers remained relatively punitive compared with 5th graders. Teachers with more punitive beliefs had students whose beliefs were more punitive when compared with students whose teachers had less punitive beliefs. Children and teachers thought that teachers should give more punitive responses than peers for the same misbehavior. The school systems that allowed corporal punishment had students with more punitive beliefs than the school system without corporal punishment. Results indicate that the school environment is perceived to be authoritarian and punitive by students and teachers. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parents' beliefs about their children's cognitive abilities.

Examined mothers' judgments of their children's cognitive abilities and the relation between such judgments and the child's developmental level. 49 1st-grade children responded to tasks drawn from either the Piagetian literature or the Stanford-Binet IQ tests. Ss also completed a vocabulary test drawn from the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT). Subsequently, each S's mother was asked various questions about probable response, both for her own child and for children in general. Results reveal that mothers were more accurate in predicting their child's success or failure on the IQ items than on the Piaget items. In both conditions, overestimations of ability were more common than underestimations. Estimates of age of mastery also showed overestimation, in some cases by several years. Data collected from 12 fathers indicate that fathers' patterns of response were similar to those of their wives. The correlations between accurate predictions by the mother and correct answers by the child were .85 in the Piaget condition and .49 in the IQ condition. Findings are compatible with the match hypothesis, which posits that the mother's knowledge of her child enables her to create an optimally challenging environment. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Praise for intelligence can undermine children's motivation and performance.

Praise for ability is commonly considered to have beneficial effects on motivation. Contrary to this popular belief, six studies demonstrated that praise for intelligence had more negative consequences for students' achievement motivation than praise for effort. Fifth graders praised for intelligence were found to care more about performance goals relative to learning goals than children praised for effort. After failure, they also displayed less task persistence, less task enjoyment, more low-ability attributions, and worse task performance than children praised for effort. Finally, children praised for intelligence described it as a fixed trait more than children praised for hard work, who believed it to be subject to improvement. These findings have important implications for how achievement is best encouraged, as well as for more theoretical issues, such as the potential cost of performance goals and the socialization of contingent self-worth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of inner-city environment and Head Start experience on effectance motivation

Effectance motivation was examined in 26 inner-city children attending Head Start, 26 inner-city children with no preschool experience, and 26 middle-class children attending private preschool. Head Start children scored higher on measures of effectance motivation than did their non-Head Start counterparts; their levels were lower, however, than those of the middle-class children. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

Teachers' beliefs about interaction control and their observed behavioral correlates.

A teacher's perception of control over interactions with pupils has been suggested as a possible mediator of the expectation communication process. The present study tested some predictions based on this line of reasoning, with both between- and within-classroom analysis models. Participants were 204 3rd–5th graders from 5 schools and 17 teachers. The within-classroom analysis found, as predicted, that teachers viewed interactions with low-expectation pupils as less controllable than those with high-expectation pupils and that teacher initiations were perceived as more controllable than child initiations. In addition, a predicted (but nonsignificant) negative relation was found between the frequency of a teacher's ignoring a pupil's response and interaction control: Less relative perceived control over a pupil was associated with a relatively more frequent occurrence of no feedback. Reasons for the weakness in relations are discussed. Also, explanatory analyses involving control and the frequency of 6 types of classroom interaction are presented. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's beliefs about intelligence and school performance.

The study was designed, first, to explore associations among children's beliefs about intelligence and effort, goal orientations, self-reported learning strategies, and academic achievement. Assessments of all variables were conducted twice over 1 school year on 319 children in Grades 3–6. Results indicate that the belief that intelligence is relatively fixed was associated with the beliefs that performance is relatively stable and that intelligence is global in its effects on performance. This set of beliefs was differentiated from the belief that effort has positive effects on intelligence and performance. Children's beliefs in intelligence as fixed and affecting performance were negatively associated with academic achievement, but a path analysis provided only modest support for the hypothesis that the effect of such beliefs would be mediated by a performance goal orientation and accompanying superficial learning strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Know thyself: Misperceptions of actual performance undermine achievement motivation, future performance, and subjective well-being.

Contrary to the popular assumption that self-enhancement improves task motivation and future performance, the authors propose that both inflated and deflated self-assessments of performance are linked to an increased likelihood of practicing self-handicapping and having relatively poor performance in future tasks. Consistent with this proposal, we found that irrespective of the level of actual performance, compared with accurate self-assessment, both inflated and deflated self-assessments of task performance are associated with a greater tendency to (a) practice self-handicapping (Study 1: prefer to work under distraction; Study 2: withhold preparatory effort), (b) perform relatively poorly in a subsequent task (Study 3), (c) have relatively low academic achievement (Study 4), and (d) report a relatively low level of subjective well-being (Study 5). The authors discuss these results in terms of their educational implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural variations in family beliefs about children's performance in mathematics: Comparisons among People's Republic of China, Chinese-American, and Caucasian-American families.

We examined beliefs about children's performance in mathematics through interviews with mothers and their sixth-grade children in the People's Republic of China (PRC) and in Chinese-American and Caucasian-American groups in the United States. Explanations for relatively high and low performance were indicated by attributions to ability, effort, training at home, training at school, and luck. We also asked mothers about specific instances of unusually high or low achievement. The groups showed different patterns of attributions. Mothers in the PRC viewed lack of effort as the major cause of low performance. The Chinese Americans also viewed lack of effort as important but assigned considerable responsibility to other sources. The Caucasian Americans distributed responsibility more evenly across the options. PRC mothers offered partial reinforcement to children who brought home a good grade; American mothers, both Chinese and Caucasian, were likely to offer unqualified praise. National differences in performance may occur in part because of such cultural variations in beliefs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Head Start and urban children's school readiness: A birth cohort study in 18 cities.

We used longitudinal data from a birth cohort study, the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, to investigate the links between Head Start and school readiness in a large and diverse sample of urban children at age 5 (N = 2,803; 18 cities). We found that Head Start attendance was associated with enhanced cognitive ability and social competence and reduced attention problems but not reduced internalizing or externalizing behavior problems. These findings were robust to model specifications (including models with city-fixed effects and propensity-scoring matching). Furthermore, the effects of Head Start varied by the reference group. Head Start was associated with improved cognitive development when compared with parental care or other nonparental care, as well as improved social competence (compared with parental care) and reduced attention problems (compared with other nonparental care). In contrast, compared with attendance at pre-kindergarten or other center-based care, Head Start attendance was not associated with cognitive gains but with improved social competence and reduced attention and externalizing behavior problems (compared with attendance at other center-based care). These associations were not moderated by child gender or race/ethnicity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of generic language about ability on children's achievement motivation.

Nuances in how adults talk about ability may have important consequences for children's sustained involvement and success in an activity. In this study, I tested the hypothesis that children would be less motivated while performing a novel activity if they were told that boys or girls in general are good at this activity (generic language) than if they were told that a particular boy or girl is good at it (non-generic language). Generic language may be detrimental because it expresses normative societal expectations regarding performance. If these expectations are negative, they may cause children to worry about confirming them; if positive, they may cause worries about failing to meet them. Moreover, generic statements may be threatening because they imply that performance is the result of stable traits rather than effort. Ninety-seven 4- to 7-year-olds were asked to play a game in which they succeeded at first but then made a few mistakes. Since young children remain optimistic in achievement situations until the possibility of failure is made clear, I hypothesized that 4- and 5-year-olds would not be affected by the implications of generic language until after they made mistakes; 6- and 7-year-olds, however, may be susceptible earlier. As expected, the older children who heard that boys or girls are good at this game displayed lower motivation (e.g., more negative emotions, lower perceived competence) from the start, while they were still succeeding and receiving praise. Four- and 5-year-olds who heard these generic statements had a similar reaction, but only after they made mistakes. These findings demonstrate that exposure to generic language about ability can be an obstacle to children's motivation and, potentially, their success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Work attitudes, motivation, and performance.

Discusses motivational variables both as determinants of performance by the individual in an organization, and as ingredients of work attitudes, such as job satisfaction. Motivation studies have included motivational traits (relatively enduring predispositions), motivating environments, expectancies, and equity theory. Research on job satisfaction and job involvement reveals few consistent relationships to job performance, but they do predict absenteeism and turnover. A few studies of motivational traits suggest possible utility in predicting role performance in managerial or sales positions. Motivating environments seem to have significant relations to job satisfaction and effectiveness. After reviewing several categories of programs aimed at improving motivation, the author expresses a cautiously optimistic view about the success of these programs in improving worker attitudes and/or worker performance. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental health consultation and Operation Head Start.

Presents the view that in most settings in which a psychotherapy model was used in consultation in Head Start, the consultation was at best disappointing. A model for community consultation is suggested as an alternative, noting the approach of Gerald Caplan which emphasizes diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. However, a more comprehensive theory of social environment and its effects on behavior is considered necessary. This would include findings from a number a fields, i.e., psychology, sociology, anthropology, education, and public health. The appropriate academic setting would be in the behavioral sciences unit of a school of public health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transitional first-grade referrals: An analysis of school-related factors and children's characteristics.

In this study, the relationship among transitional first-grade referrals, school characteristics, and children's personal and school readiness characteristics was examined. Teachers who reported a higher emphasis on didactic instruction tended to refer more children to the transition room. In addition, there were lower levels of involvement for parents of transition-referred children. Moreover, referred children were younger, evaluated their own school abilities less favorably, scored lower on the Gesell Developmental Assessment, and were described by their teachers as less competent academically and less well adjusted socially. The referral of children to a readiness-transitional program is a complex process. Embedded in a sociocultural context, this process is shaped by many forces, including the school system's philosophies and structures; the teachers' views, beliefs, and activities; the family–school connection; and children's skills and characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does Head Start work? A 1-year follow-up comparison of disadvantaged children attending Head Start, no preschool, and other preschool programs.

This article examines how successful Project Head Start has been as a preschool program for economically disadvantaged children. Most Head Start evaluations have not controlled for initial differences between Head Start and comparison groups. They have also limited comparisons to those with no preschool experience, rather than considering other preschools as an alternative comparison group. Subjects were 969 disadvantaged children attending Head Start, other preschool, or no preschool in 1969–1970, longitudinally evaluated on a variety of cognitive measures. Large initial group differences were observed between Head Start children and both comparison groups, with those in Head Start at a disadvantage on nearly every demographic and cognitive measure. Adjusting for initial background and cognitive differences, Head Start children showed significantly larger gains on the Preschool Inventory and Motor Inhibition tests than either comparison group, with Black children in Head Start (especially those of below-average initial ability) gaining the most. However, despite substantial gains, Head Start children were still behind their peers in terms of absolute cognitive levels after a year in the program. Head Start proved an impressive instrument of short-term change, even compared with other preschool experience. Gains in behaviors other than intelligence suggest that the effects may not be limited to the cognitive domain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of information about future interaction and peer's motivation on peer reward allocations.

Most equity studies dealing with children have defined inputs solely in terms of relative task performance. Yet in naturally occurring circumstances, children are presented with information about accomplishments in a context of other equally salient information. The present study determined what information 192 1st and 3rd graders weighted most heavily when formulating allocation decision rules. Ss allocated rewards to themselves and 2 unfamiliar players following a tower-building task. One player always constructed a shorter tower than the participant and the other player. Altruistic, aggressive, or no motivation information was attributed to the short-tower player. Half of the Ss anticipated future interaction with the players. It was hypothesized that both 1st and 3rd graders would utilize information concerning a peer's motivation in allocating rewards and that the prospect of future interaction would influence the use of the motivation information. Results corroborate the 1st hypothesis and indicate that prospect of future interaction information masked the effects of a peer's motivation for 3rd graders. First graders used this information only when no motivation information was given. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The form and function of young children's magical beliefs.

Research and common lore suggest that children subscribe to a rich world of fantasy, including beliefs about magical entities and events. This study explores how children use magic to explain events they witness in the real world. 16 children (aged 4, 6, and 8 yrs) were asked a set of interview questions designed to assess general magical beliefs. They were then presented with physical events and were asked to predict and explain their occurrence and to state whether they believed the events were magical. The extent of Ss' magical beliefs, as measured by the interview, decreased with age. Regarding explanations of events, the availability of correct physical explanations for the events accounted for a significant portion of the variance in Ss' claims that the events were magic. Findings suggest that magic is used by children as an explanatory tool when they encounter events that both violate their expectations and elude adequate physical explanation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empathy and responsibility in the motivation of children's helping.

To investigate affective and dispositional factors in the motivation of children's helping, 60 children ranging from preschool to sixth grade were observed in laboratory distress incidents involving, as potential recipients of aid, a kitten, an adult experimenter, and a mother with an infant. Positive, negative, and neutral affect expressions were observed in two of the three distress incidents, and prosocial dispositions were assessed through children's attributions regarding the motives and feelings of characters in eight stories involving persons in distress. Results indicated that helping tended to be positively correlated with positive affect and negatively correlated with negative and neutral affect. Further evidence suggested that these correlations were primarily attributable to positive affects associated with helping itself rather than to affects experienced in witnessing the other's distress. Among story attributions, attributions of guilt were strongly and consistently related to helping and affect expression in the total sample and across grade groupings. Attributions of empathy and altruism were also related to helping, but only in the total sample. These results are interpreted as suggesting that it may not be empathic arousal alone that is most important for the motivation of helping, but the subjective meaning of that arousal in terms of an accompanying sense of responsibility for the other person's plight. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers' helping behaviors during children's at-home oral-reading practice: Effects of children's reading ability, children's gender, and mothers' educational level.

To investigate the popular recommendation that children practice reading aloud at home, the conversations of 76 3rd graders reading to their mothers were audiotaped, transcribed, and coded. Conversations between below-average readers and their mothers were marked by the frequent use of error corrections. High-school-educated mothers made significantly more error corrections than did college-educated mothers, despite equal numbers of above-average and below-average readers in each group. High-school-educated mothers made significantly more comments than did college-educated mothers. College-educated mothers asked significantly more questions, including high-level questions, than did high-school-educated mothers. Girls spoke more during the conversations than did boys. Text difficulty effects are underscored, and practical implications are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Head Start and preschool education: Toward continued improvement.

The first 5 years of life influence school readiness and achievement; high-quality preschool experiences can enhance development (C. T. Ramey & Ramey, 1998, 1999). Ripple, Giliam, Chanana, and Zigler (1999) provide valuable data about states' efforts on behalf of preschoolers. Their data reveal that too many states still have no programs, although some have launched promising, innovative, and universal preschool programs with accompanying research. A continued role for Head Start is thus justified, but only if Head Start invests seriously and consistently in high-quality programs. Present fragmentation of services, as well as support for weak programs, must be ended. Effective technical assistance to programs and the promotion of active collaboration with other community agencies, including schools, is critical to success for states and Head Start alike. Forging a new, powerful national coalition that has adequate resources, strong political clout, needed expertise, and a commitment to children's development and school readiness is necessary. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improving psychotherapy: Old beliefs, new research, and future directions.

Refutes common beliefs that deter efforts to measure and improve psychotherapy's effectiveness and to reduce its costs, asserting that (1) therapy outcomes and costs may in some cases be inversely related, (2) therapists should examine cost-effectiveness, (3) psychotherapeutic effectiveness can be quantified, and (4) laboratory research is not the only way to improve therapy. The authors propose a revitalized scientist–practitioner model, expanded research methodologies, and implementation of alternative incentive or service delivery mechanisms as steps toward obtaining better therapeutic outcomes from available dollars. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)