Developmental differences in responses to a television character's appearance and behavior.

In a 2?×?2?×?3 design, 52 3–5 yr olds, 58 6–7 yr olds, and 59 9–10 yr olds viewed a videotape in which a female protagonist's appearance (attractive, ugly) was factorially varied with her behavior (kind, cruel). Perceptions of the protagonist and predictions of the story's outcome were assessed. Based on theoretical and empirical evidence of a developmental decrease in perceptual dependence, the influence of the woman's appearance was expected to decrease with age, and the influence of her behavior was expected to increase with age. These expectations were confirmed. A 2nd study was conducted with 40 4–5 yr olds, 41 6–7 yr olds, and 34 9–21 yr olds to rule out the alternative explanation that younger children possess stronger physical appearance stereotypes than do older children. In this study, Ss did not have information about the woman's behavior. It was found that Ss at all 3 age levels demonstrated appearance stereotyping. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relational and physical forms of peer victimization in preschool.

Recent studies of peer victimization have demonstrated the importance of studying relational as well as physical forms of peer maltreatment for understanding children's social-psychological adjustment problems. Studies in this area have been limited thus far by a focus on school-age children (9–12-year olds). Given the significance of early identification of children's social difficulties for intervention and prevention efforts, this research was designed to assess relational and physical peer victimization among preschool-age children (3–5-year-olds). Results indicated that boys were significantly more physically victimized than girls whereas girls were more relationally victimized. Both relational and physical victims experienced greater adjustment problems than did their peers. Relational victimization contributed unique information about adjustment beyond that provided by physical victimization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

There's more to the picture than meets the eye: young children's difficulty understanding biased interpretation

5 experiments investigated children's understanding that expectations based on prior experience may influence a person's interpretation of ambiguous visual information. In Experiment 1, 4- and 5-year-olds were asked to infer a puppet's interpretation of a small, ambiguous portion of a line drawing after the puppet had been led to have an erroneous expectation about the drawing's identity. Children of both ages failed to ascribe to the puppet an interpretation consistent with the puppet's expectation. Instead, children attributed complete knowledge of the drawing to the puppet. In Experiment 2, the task was modified to reduce memory demands, but 4- and 5-year-olds continued to overlook the puppet's prior expectations when asked to infer the puppet's interpretation of an ambiguous scene. 6-year-olds responded correctly. In Experiment 3, 4- and 5-year-olds correctly reported that an observer who saw a restricted view would not know what was in the drawing, but children did not realize that the observer's interpretation might be mistaken. Experiments 4 and 5 explored the possibility that children's errors reflect difficulty inhibiting their own knowledge when responding. The results are taken as evidence that understanding of interpretation begins at approximately age 6 years.     

Adult age differences in the ability to cope with situations of high arousal in a precision sport.

Conducted 3 field experiments in which skilled miniature golf players were studied in 3 types of activities (training, minor competitions, and large competitions). Ss for Exp I were 5 22–32 yr olds and 5 47–58 yr olds; 14 Ss in Exp II were aged 7–24 yrs, 15–28 yrs, or 19–45 yrs; Ss for Exp III were 5 48–59 yr olds and 6 23–35 yr olds. Performance (i.e., number of shots) and arousal (heart rate and subjective ratings of anxiety) measures were registered in all types of activities. Findings show that the level of performance of older adult players deteriorated in the large competitions, whereas groups of younger adult players, junior players, and youth players performed at the same level in all 3 events, although all of the groups exhibited a similar increase in arousal from training and minor competitions to large competitions. It is suggested that older players may have a deficit in the ability to compensate for the negative effects of nonoptimal levels of arousal because of impairments in a variety of cognitive abilities that are critical to successful performance. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Determinants of young children's search strategies in a large-scale environment.

26 3–6 yr olds searched for an object after traveling a route along which the object was used and later discovered missing (critical events). Ss then recalled the order of locations along the traveled route (sequence recall) and the locations for critical events (event recall); they also drew a map of the search environment. The correlation between event recall and search scores was significant only for Ss with good sequence recall. Correlations between sequence recall and search scores were higher for Ss who placed locations on the route in drawing maps. It is concluded that the acquisition of route knowledge in the development of spatial representation determined the likelihood that inferences would be made. When inferences were made, the accuracy of memories for sequences and events further determined the accuracy of the inferred critical search area. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's concepts of volume and flotation.

Conducted a pilot study in which children (aged 7–9 yrs and 11–13 yrs) were asked to judge which 1 out of 3 wooden blocks would float (or sink), given weight and volume information for each block relative to a block that was known to float (or sink). Analysis of explanations indicated that judgments may have been based on the size–weight illusion. An experiment exploring the basis of flotation judgments was conducted with 14 children aged 7 yrs 1 mo to 9 yrs 6 mo and 16 children aged 11 yrs 4 mo to 14 yrs 11 mo that involved a test for judgment of volume based on information integration theory. Results show that Ss aged 7–24 yrs accurately judged volume by integrating 3 dimensions—width, depth, and height—according to the multiplicative rule. A rule assessment of their flotation judgments showed no age differences in initial rule, with weight rules being most popular. However, after feedback there were marked age effects; the 7–9 yr olds abandoned their initial rule without finding an alternative, and the 11–24 yr olds were generally able to find the correct flotation rule. It is concluded that children aged 7–24 yrs can judge volume but 7–9 yr olds have difficulty with the concept of flotation, possibly because it requires mental comparison of 2 ratios, a task known to be difficult for 7–9 yr olds. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information processing and the development of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values.

109 3–10 yr old Ss completed an individualized regression assessment of social values, a central-incidental memory measure, and a free-recall word list task in a study that assessed the possibility that the developmental difference in social values is associated with the development of information-processing capabilities. Findings demonstrate developmental differences in social values and suggest a possible partial explanation for the differences. The modal social value among 3–5 yr olds was individualism, while among 6–7 yr olds and 8–20 yr olds the modal social value was superiority. The oldest Ss expressed a social value involving equality more frequently than did younger Ss. It is suggested that older children, compared to younger children, more often consider the relative nature of their outcomes and more often engage in social comparison. Performance on the memory tasks was consistently associated with age: Ss who expressed an individualism social value generally performed more poorly on the memory measures than did Ss who expressed any other social value. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preschoolers distribute scarce resources according to the moral valence of recipients' previous actions.

Children aged 3 years and 4? years old watched a puppet, struggling to achieve goals, who was helped by a 2nd puppet and violently hindered by a 3rd. The children then distributed wooden biscuits between the helper and hinderer. In Experiment 1, when distributing a small odd number of biscuits, 4?-year-olds (N = 16) almost always gave more to the helper. Children verbally justified their unequal distributions by reference to the helper's prosocial behavior or the hinderer's antisocial behavior. In Experiment 2, when biscuits were more plentiful, 4?-year-olds (N = 16) usually gave equal numbers to helper and hinderer, indicating that 4?-year-olds usually preferred not to distribute unequally unless forced to by resource scarcity. Three-year-olds (N = 16 in Experiment 1, N = 20 in Experiment 3) gave more biscuits equally often to the helper and to the hinderer. In many cases, this was because they were confused as to the identities and actions of the puppets, possibly because they were shocked by the hinderer's actions. Two fundamental moral behaviors are therefore demonstrated in young preschoolers: indirect reciprocity of morally valenced acts and a preference for equality when distributing resources, although the cognitive bases for these behaviors remain unclear. These results join other recent studies in demonstrating that the seeds of complex moral understanding and behavior are found early in development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhanced sensitivity to topoisomerase inhibitors in synchronous CHO cells pre-treated with 5-azacytidine

Observed normal preschool children from 2 through 5.9 years of age and their mothers using 2 established measurements of child compliance: the Compliance Test and the Clinic Task Analog. The diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder as defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., American Psychiatric Association, 1994) currently requires subjective integration of interview, questionnaire, and behavioral data. Knowledge of normal child behavior within a parent-controlled task context is needed. Normal 4- and 5-year olds were found to be more compliant than were normal 2- and 3-year olds; no sex effects were detected. The Compliance Test yielded stronger age associations, better observer reliability, and more individual differences than the Clinic Task Analog. Clinic Task Analog data masked child compliance, probably as a result of maternal instruction-giving style. The Compliance Test is recommended for diagnostic purposes over the Clinic Task Analog.     

Episodic memory in 16- and 20-month-old children: Specifics are generalized but not forgotten.

Three experiments tested (1) whether 1–2 yr olds generalize their knowledge of events to new instantiations and (2) 1 possible mechanism by which generalization is accomplished. In Exp 1, 12 16- and 12 20-mo-old children enacted 6 event sequences. One week later Ss were tested for delayed recall. At delayed testing the props used to enact half of the events were replaced by novel, functionally equivalent props. Ss in both age groups used the new props to enact the events, thereby demonstrating spontaneous generalization. Exps 2 and 3 tested whether generalization was accomplished through forgetting of the specific details of the original event. At Session 1, 24 16- (Exps 2 and 3) and 16 20-mo-olds (Exp 2) enacted 4 events. After a 1-wk delay, Ss selected props used to enact the events at Session 1. Among the objects from which they selected were functionally equivalent props of the sort used to assess generalization in Exp 1. Ss in both age groups performed reliably on the recognition-memory task. Results show that 16- and 20-mo-old children have at their disposal the capacity to productively generalize their knowledge of events to form specific, episodic event memories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of children's understanding of ambivalence and causal theories of emotions.

Investigated a 4-stage developmental sequence in children's understanding of ambivalence. At the highest level of this sequence, children understand that contradictory feelings can coexist at the same time toward the same target in terms of a framework in which it is recognized that the 2 feelings influence one another. 20 4–5 yr olds, 20 7–8 yr olds, and 20 10–11 yr olds were presented with 2 tape-recorded stories in which the protagonist could be construed as feeling happy and sad or anger and love. Raters scored the Ss' responses to a structured interview about the stories in terms of the proposed sequence. Separate parts of the protocols were assessed independently with respect to a proposed sequence in children's causal theories of emotions. According to this sequence, children's understanding of feelings develops from an externally based theory in which feelings are wedded to events to an internally based theory in which feelings largely depend on memories, thoughts, and attitudes. Results support both hypothesized developmental progressions and show significant relationships between the 2 domains of Ss' understanding of emotions. Findings suggest that internal states' mediation of emotional responses may be an important component in understanding ambivalence and that the motivation to integrate conflicting feelings may play a role in promoting the external to internal shift in children's causal theories of emotions. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's attributions regarding the situational determinants of emotion in self and others.

22 4–5 yr olds and 22 7–8 yr olds, equally divided by sex, were interviewed regarding the contexts they considered elicited each of 5 emotional states (happy, sad, angry, afraid, and surprised) in self, other children, and adults. Responses were coded into a priori categories and were compared with rankings made by 40 22–36 yr olds of the same categories as explanations for adults' and for children's emotions. Results confirm that explanations for emotional states were nonrandom, even for preschoolers, and were distributed in significantly different and meaningful ways across the emotions investigated. Several age- and gender-related hypotheses were confirmed: Interpersonal and achievement explanations for emotions both increased with age; fantasy contexts for fear decreased with age; and girls used more interpersonal explanations for emotion than did boys. Expected increases with age in cognitive differentiation of such affect knowledge were marginally confirmed, with older children using a greater number of categories to explain emotions than did younger children. Contrary to expectations, there were no age or gender effects as a function of target person, nor was there greater differentiation of categories used to explain own vs others' affect. Social and cognitive factors relevant to children's and adults' affect construals are discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On facts and conceptual systems: Young children's integration of their understandings of germs and contagion.

Five studies argue against claims that preschoolers understand a biological germ theory of illness. In Studies 1–3, participants were read stories in which characters develop symptoms (e.g., a bellyache) caused by germs, poisons, or events (e.g., eating too much candy) and were asked whether another character could catch the symptoms from the first. Few children made judgments in terms of germs as part of an underlying causal process linking the origin of a symptom to its subsequent transmission. Some children may have reasoned simply that certain kinds of symptoms are likely to be contagious. Studies 4 and 5 undermined the claim that preschoolers understand germs to be uniquely biological causal agents. Young children did not attribute properties to germs as they did for animate beings or for plants. It is suggested that children undergo conceptual reorganization in constructing a Western adult understanding of germs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-validation of the Canter Background Interference Procedure in identifying children with cerebral dysfunction.

Cross-validated previous work indicating promise for the Canter Background Interference Procedure (BIP) as a technique for diagnosing cerebral dysfunction (CD) in children. Groups of 40 minimal-CD, 41 overt-CD, and 116 no-CD 6–16 yr olds were studied. An overall "hit" rate of 81% was found in the 12–26 yr olds and of 60% in the 6–21 yr olds. Results raise questions about the clinical use of the BIP to "diagnose" cerebral dysfunction in children. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Notational adaptation in children.

Three experiments examined whether and how children adapt their notations (use of external symbol systems) to the communicative needs of addresses of different ages. In Exp 1, 26 8–9 yr olds, 28 10–11 yr olds, and 11 adults made 2 notations about a solution to a simple board puzzle, one for a peer and the other for a 6-yr-old. Exp 2, with 28 8–9 yr olds, 23 10–11 yr olds, and 30 adults, focused on oral adaptations in the same context. In Exp 3, 28 8–9 yr-olds, 21 10–11 yr olds, and 30 adults were asked to choose ready-made notations for different addresses. Children's notations at both age groups were overall informative and adequate and improved with age. Children's notation's however, were not as sophisticated as verbal instructions, possible due to the Ss' more extensive experience with oral communication. Children's notational adaptation also developed with age. Some 8–9 yr olds and many 10–11 yr olds made systematic changes in their notations and verbal instructions for addresses of different ages. Most Ss of both age groups were aware of the difference in communicative competence between the younger addressee and the peer. They also shared with adults certain assumptions regarding the needs of the younger addresses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Appropriateness of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence for gifted children.

The extent to which the WPPSI provides items of sufficient difficulty for gifted children was investigated using a sample of 306 4–6 yr olds with IQs of 120 and above. All subtests investigated were found to have an inadequate level of difficulty, and 6 of the subtests were inadequate for half or more of the Ss. Results question the viability of scatter analysis and validity of subtest scores when using the WPPSI with gifted children. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in selective attention among prereaders: A key to mirror-image confusions.

Exp I investigated the position that mirror-image confusions reflect an inability to attend to low-salient cues. 84 3–5 yr olds were given 3 problems: mirror-image matching, shape-detail matching, and consistent left–right ordering on a picture-naming task. With nonlearners, performance was reassessed following explicit instructions. This rendered Ss divisible into levels: spontaneous, instructed learners, and nonlearners. As predicted, most 3-yr-olds fell into identical categories across all low-salient problems, either instructed learners or nonlearners. The 4–5 yr olds were spontaneous or instructed learners but did not exhibit concordance across all problems. It is suggested that for these Ss, level differences reflected differences between nonreaders already attending to reading cues and those not yet attending. Exp II, with the 4–5 yr olds from Exp I, identified the nonreaders, who were given a letter-series and letter-writing task. Significant-levels agreement occurred among the prereading tasks involving attention to individual shape details. The ordering problem showed level concordance only with tasks involving left–right scanning. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The young child's understanding of communication.

Conducted 2 experiments with 110 5-8 yr olds to investigate the extent to which the young child understands that messages can be inadequate to determine whether there is a developmental trend in such understanding. Each child played the role of both speaker and listener in a communication game with the E. Failures in communication were made to occur, and the child was asked to judge whose fault these were and why. In Exp I, a significant age-related trend was found: almost all 5.5-6 yr olds located the fault with the listener; the 6.5-7 yr olds most frequently blamed the E (who was a speaker for half of the trials); blaming the speaker alone was most common in the 7.5-8 group. Results suggest that the older children, but not the youngest, understood that communication failure can be occasioned by an inadequate message. The existence of children who always blamed the E and the failure to find any who always blamed themselves were confirmed in Exp II with different materials. These findings cast doubt upon the accuracy of Piaget's (1959) account of the breakdown of egocentrism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual perspective taking in 2- to 6-year-old children.

Tested whether young children could infer another persons' perspective by showing 80 2–6 yr olds 2 videotaped stories which included audio information describing the action, and later reshowing the films to the Ss and their mothers, with the audio turned off. The Ss were then asked questions about their mothers' knowledge of the action and asked to justify their answers. Few or none of the 2- and 3-yr-olds answered nonegocentrically but most to all of the 4-, 5-, and 6-yr-olds did. The ability to make a correct inference appeared somewhat earlier than the ability to justify it. Results are compared to those from other studies. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)