Schema training in analogical reasoning.

In 3 experiments, college students learned how to solve 20 verbal analogy problems and took transfer and memory tests. Ss learned from worked-out examples that emphasized relational terms such as "part-to-whole" or under 3 other instructional conditions that required responding to examples or that excluded mention of relational terms. The former Ss were more accurate and faster then other Ss on solving new problems involving the same relations but less accurate in recognizing words from previous problems. This pattern is inconsistent with active responding theory, which predicts students learn best by generating answers and receiving feedback to problems, and is consistent with active learning theory, which predicts that students learn best by inducing schemas for particular problem types. Results indicate that schema induction is maximized when the schemas are made salient and the cognitive system is not overloaded. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social influences on children's problem solving.

Three studies examined the nature and limiting conditions of effects of peer interaction on children's problem solving. 150 children (4 to 11 years old) worked alone or with a same-age peer at a computer. Age, task complexity, and task familiarity were found to qualify effects of peer interaction on both motivation and learning. At all ages, except when the task was very complex or very familiar, working with a peer increased task engagement and positive affect. For younger preschool children, working with a peer had no effect on retention of simple or moderately complex tasks but had a negative effect on retention of more complex tasks. For older preschool children, peer interaction had a positive effect on retention of simple tasks, a neutral effect on retention of moderately complex tasks, and a negative effect on retention of more complex tasks. For elementary-school children, peer interaction had a positive effect on retention of even the most complex tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of analogical reasoning in the induction of problem categories.

In 3 experiments, novices were required to answer questions while reading a series of problems. The questions required them either to analyze individual problem structures (intraproblem processing) or compare problem structures (analogical comparison processing) to derive answers. Ss who engaged in problem comparison processing were found to categorize and describe problems on the basis of problem structure, whereas those who engaged in intraproblem processing, or simply read the problems, categorized and described them on the basis of surface features. Analogical comparisons also facilitated selection and construction of equations relative to intraproblem processing. These results suggest that analogical comparison is an important component in the induction of problem categories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Collaborative problem solving and children's planning skills.

Two studies were conducted in which 5- and 9-year-old children either collaborated with another person (peer or adult) or worked individually in planning efficient routes through a model grocery store. The studies examined the effects of planning with a partner as well as the relation of collaborative planning to subsequent solo planning. Study 1 demonstrated that older children are more skilled at planning in advance of action than younger children, and that children who planned in advance produced more efficient routes. Younger children who shared task responsibility developed more efficient routes, but this relationship did not appear for the older children. Results of Study 2, focusing on 5-year-olds, suggested that, although having a partner did not influence later individual planning, sharing responsibility for planning with a peer or an adult related to advance planning and planning effectiveness in later individual planning efforts. The results of the present studies suggest that cognitive gains resulting from joint problem solving between children and adults or peers may be more likely with shared task responsibility. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inductive problem solving: Schema inducement and memory-based transfer.

Studies of delayed transfer have been infrequent in contemporary work (M. L. Gick and K. J. Holyoak, 1987). Studies of immediate transfer by G. D. Phye (1986, 1987; see also PA, Vol 77:3557) have identified a general schema and a procedural schema as the basis for the transfer of analogical reasoning skills. This study addresses the question of memory-based processing when transfer is delayed. Ss were 183 college students. The training-for-transfer paradigm used to study immediate transfer was employed. Results indicate the use of both a general and a specific schema for retrieval when memory-based processing is required in order to demonstrate transfer within a problem domain. These data replicate and extend Phye's previous findings identifying induced schemata as a part of the architectural basis for cognitive transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of principle explanation and superficial similarity on analogical mapping in problem solving.

When solving a problem, people often make use of an earlier problem by mapping the objects from the earlier problem to the current one. Three experiments varied the superficial similarity between study and test problems to discriminate 2 views of the mapping process: direct mapping and near miss. Subjects studied 4 probability principles and study problems and solved test problems. The mapping of earlier problems on the basis of superficial similarity would lead to incorrect answers. In Experiment 1, evidence was found for the direct mapping view: Test problems with more similar objects to the study problems were more likely to be (inappropriately) mapped. However, in Experiment 2, in which the principle explanation was embedded in the study problem, this effect was reversed. In Experiment 3, 2 explanations for the differences in effect were contrasted. The discussion focuses on how principle explanation may affect analogical problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of model persistence and success on children's problem solving.

Studied the effects of a social model's performance on children's persistence in problem solving using a wire-puzzle task. 80 1st and 2nd graders were assigned to 1 of 4 live modeling groups or to a no-model control group. Two durations of model effort (high or low persistence) relative to the control group performance were factorially compared with model success or no success in reaching a solution. Both duration of effort and success of the model significantly affected persistence. Together these variables significantly improved or depressed the Ss' persistence compared with that of the control group. Social comparisons by the Ss of the length of their performances and those of the models appeared to covary with imitative behavioral outcomes. Results are discussed in terms of A. Bandura's social learning theory. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Automatic versus reflective social problem solving in relation to children's sociometric status.

Children's automatic and reflective social problem-solving skills were compared by requiring them to generate solutions to hypothetical social problems immediately after hearing them or after being required to wait 20 sec before answering. When responding immediately, a condition designed to evoke Ss' automatic response tendencies, both aggressive and nonaggressive, rejected boys generated fewer verbal assertion responses and more conflict-escalating responses than did nonrejected boys. When required to delay before responding, a condition that encouraged reflective reasoning, only the responses of aggressive rejected boys differed from those of nonrejected boys. Similar status-related differences in the solutions proposed by female Ss were not found. The implications of these findings for aggressive and rejected children's social problem-solving deficiencies are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of conceptual understanding in children's addition problem solving

The study examined the relationship between children's conceptual understanding and addition problem-solving procedures. Forty-eight 6- to 8-year-olds solved addition problems and, in a 2nd task, were prompted to judge whether a puppet could use the arithmetic properties of one problem to solve the next problem. Relational properties between consecutive problems were manipulated to reflect aspects of additive composition, commutativity, and associativity principles. Conceptual understanding was assessed by the ability to spontaneously use such relational properties in problem solving (Task 1) and to recognize and explain them when prompted (Task 2). Results revealed that conceptual understanding was related to using order-indifferent, decomposition, and retrieval strategies and speed and accuracy in solving unrelated problems. The importance of conceptual understanding for addition development is discussed.     

Surface similarity and relational similarity in the development of analogical problem solving: Isomorphic and nonisomorphic transfer.

Surface and relational similarity were examined in 2 experiments involving isomorphic and nonisomorphic analogical transfer. Each study included a direct-mapping condition, in which surface features of the base mapped directly to surface features in the target, and a cross-mapping condition, in which surface features of the base and target were reversed. Exp 1 involved transfer between analogs of the missionaries-cannibals (MC) problem among kindergarten, 3rd-grade, and 6th-grade children. The 3rd and 6th graders in the cross-mapping condition exhibited mappings based on relational similarity significantly more frequently than the kindergartners. Exp 2 examined performance of 4- to 6-yr-olds vs 6- to 8-yr-olds in nonisomorphic transfer between jealous husbands and MC problems. In the cross-mapping condition, most children exhibited mappings based on surface similarity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Role of analogical reasoning in the induction of problem categories": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by D. D. Cummins (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1992[Sep], Vol 18[5], 1103–2124). On page 1111, there are labeling errors in 2 figures. In Figure 1c, problem 11 should have a "V' in the topic column; that line should read "11 V Fl.' In Figure 1d, problems 2 and 4 should have "CU' in the structure column; those lines should read "2 T CU' and "4 T CU,' respectively. Also in that figure, problems number 8 and 13 should have "Fl' in the structure column; those lines should read "8 V Fl' and "13 W Fl.' (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1993-04297-001.) In 3 experiments, novices were required to answer questions while reading a series of problems. The questions required them either to analyze individual problem structures (intraproblem processing) or compare problem structures (analogical comparison processing) to derive answers … (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal scaffolding of children's problem solving and children's adjustment in kindergarten: Hmong families in the United States.

The study examined relations between maternal scaffolding of children's problem solving and children's adjustment in kindergarten in Hmong families living in the United States. Mothers and their children (63 dyads) were visited the summer before kindergarten. Mothers' years in the United States, age, education, reasoning skills, and parenting beliefs were assessed. Maternal scaffolding (cognitive support, directiveness of instruction, praise, and criticism) was coded while mothers helped their children with school-like tasks. Children's reasoning skills, conscientiousness, autonomous behavior, and task persistence in kindergarten were reported by teachers at the end of kindergarten (54 children). Maternal cognitive support of children's problem solving predicted children's reasoning skills in kindergarten even after controlling for maternal education and reasoning skills. Maternal directive instruction positively predicted children's conscientious behavior and negatively predicted children's autonomous behaviors after controlling for maternal education and parenting beliefs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From beyond to within their grasp: The rudiments of analogical problem solving in 10- and 13-month-olds.

Four experiments were conducted to assess infants' ability to solve isomorphic problems and to explore the nature of early representations. Ten- and 13-month-olds attempted to solve problems that required combining 2 subgoals to bring a toy (goal object) within reach. A problem-series paradigm was used in which 3 tasks differing in surface features but sharing common goal structures and similar solutions were presented. The results indicate that 13-month-olds transferred a modeled solution strategy across isomorphic problems, whereas 10-month-olds did so only after experiencing either multiple source problems or high perceptual similarity between problems. Comprehension of the relations between solution actions and outcome, and between tools and target object, appeared critical to transfer. The results suggest that 1-year-olds can construct relatively abstract and flexible mental representations and that analogical problem solving may be 1 of the major accomplishments during the 1st year of life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mothers' scaffolding of children's problem solving: Establishing a foundation of academic self-regulatory competence.

The study examined relations between dimensions of mothers' scaffolding and children's academic self-regulatory behaviors in school. Mothers and their preschool children (68 dyads) were visited in their homes the summer before the child entered kindergarten. Mothers' metacognitive content and manner of instruction, emotional support, and transfer of responsibility were coded as mothers provided assistance to their children during 4 problem-solving tasks. Children's self-regulatory behaviors were assessed the following school year. Metacognitive content and manner of instruction were predictors of child behaviors related to cognitive awareness and management: metacognitive talk, monitoring, and help seeking. Emotional support and transfer of responsibility were related to children's task persistence and behavior control in school. Mothers' scaffolding appears to lay the foundation for children's subsequent academic self-regulatory competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of model persistence and statements of confidence on children's self-efficacy and problem solving.

The influence of an adult model's degree of persistence and statements of confidence were studied with 100 1st- and 2nd-grade Black and Hispanic children from a lower-class, urban school. A male model unsuccessfully attempted to separate the 2 rings of a wire puzzle, and the child was subsequently presented a different insolvable ring puzzle to solve. A day later, the child was tested again with an insolvable embedded word puzzle. In addition to their actual persistence on the 2 tasks, the children's self-efficacy estimates were assessed at various points during the experiment. The model's long duration of performance and his statements of confidence significantly increased the children's degree of persistence on both the wire puzzle and the embedded word transfer task. These modeling treatments significantly affected the children's self-efficacy estimates as well. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to A. Bandura's (1977) theory of self-efficacy. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in problem solving.

Used a 20-item set of problems (similar to those used by E. Sweeney [1953]) in 9 experiments with 558 male and 578 female undergraduates to determine which sex was superior in problem solving, the role of previous experience, whether sex differences extended throughout the domain of problem-solving tasks, whether they extended to other word problems, the role of spatial ability and verbal ability, the role of mathematics aptitude, and the relative importance of aptitude and social learning variables. Results show that the male advantage, averaging 35% across experiments, persisted at the same level as in experiments conducted in the 1950's. Sex differences extended to other word problems. The male advantage was related to similar advantages in spatial and mathematical ability. Aptitude variables dominated attitude and mathematics experience variables in accounting for the sex difference. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Content effects in problem categorization and problem solving.

In many domains, the content of a problem (i.e., its surface cover story) provides useful clues as to the type of problem it is and to its solution. Five experiments examined this role of problem content on the problem solution and categorization of algebra word problems with experienced participants. In the first experiment, when problem content was atypical for the the problem's deep structure, people were worse at solving the problem. Differences were also detected in the problem solution where the problem's content was highly correlated with its deep structure versus problems where content was neutral to their deep structure. In the other experiments, problem categorization and determination of information relevance depended on how closely the problem's content matched its deep structure. These results suggest that content may be influential even for experienced problem solvers. The discussion examines the implications for problem schema access and application. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conformity and problem solving.

Tests of problem solving, conformity, and intelligence were given to 77 women and 64 men introductory psychology students to investigate the possibility that conformity, a nonintellectual variable, contributes to the variability in achievement in problem solving. The results show a negative correlation between tendency to conform and achievement in problem solving when the influence of intelligence is statistically removed. 17 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social problem solving in suicidal adolescents.

Whether adolescent suicide attempters would have deficits in interpersonal problem solving and the relation between social problem solving, suicide intent, and medical lethality were evaluated. Compared with psychiatric and normal controls, adolescents who attempted suicide exhibited poorer social problem-solving abilities, particularly in terms of problem orientation. Specifically, suicide attempters brought more maladaptive cognitive-emotional-behavioral response sets to problematic situations than did psychiatric and normal controls. Both suicide attempters and psychiatric controls had similar deficits in problem-solving skills (e.g., generation of alternatives, decision making, and solution implementation) compared with nonhospitalized peers. Social problem solving was not found to be correlated with suicide lethality or intent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inferential problem solving in young children.

Children younger than 7–8 yrs of age have been considered incapable of inferential problem solving, defined as the combination of separately acquired behavior segments in order to solve a novel problem. This lack of inferential ability has been attributed to a deficit in spontaneous mediation. The present paper reports an experiment which demonstrates that 5–6-yr-olds are capable of inferential problem solving. Ss were 40 children, aged 5 yrs, 0 mo to 5 yrs, 11 mo, who had a mean score of 105.72 on the English Picture Vocabulary Test. The finding cannot be explained by the mediation-deficit hypothesis. An alternative interpretation is offered which argues that young children's inferential performance is constrained not by an inability to integrate separate or past experiences, but by their understanding of the separate elements involved. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)